Growing Food

A Huge Gardening Guide to help you grow all kinds of food. More Added regularly so check back. Better Gardens

DESCRIPTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MAIN FOOD CROPS
(Page numbers in brackets)
A. Cereals
Barley (107), Buckwheat (110), Maize (113), Millet (119), 
Oats (125), Rice (128), Rye (133), Sorghum (135), Teff (140),
Wheat (143).
B. Legumes
Broad Bean/Horse Bean/Field Bean (152), Chickpea (155),
Cowpea (158), Field Pea (161), Groundnut/Peanut (164), 
Haricot Bean/French Bean (167), Lentil (171), Lima Bean (174), 
Mung Bean (177), Pigeon Pea (179), Soybean (182), Vetch/Grass 
Pea/Chickling Pea (186).
C. Oilseeds
Castor (190), Linseed (193), Niger Seed (196), Sesame (198),
Sunflower (201).
D. Root Crops
Cassava /Manioc (205), Irish Potato (208), Sweet Potato (212),
  Taro (215), Yam (217).
E. Vegetables
Cabbage (222), Carrot (225), Cucurbits (228), Okra (231), 
Onion (234), Pepper (237), Tomato (240).
F. Fruits
Avocado (244), Banana (247), Citrus (253), Guava (256), Mango
(259), Papaya/Pawpaw (261), Watermelon (264).
G. Under Exploited Crops
Amaranth (268), Bambara Groundnut (271), Buffalo Gourd (273), 
Leucaena (275), Lupin (278), Tepary Bean (282),  Winged Bean/
Four-angled Bean (284).
104



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK105
For quick and easy reference, the food crops listed in Section 2 are all described in
the same way, in the same order. For example, if you want to know about the soil 
requirements for barley, go to BarleyŽ, then Planting conditions / SoilŽ:
€ Common English and scientific (botanicalŽ or LatinŽ) name.
€ Local names, synonyms and names, where known, in French, German, Spanish,
Portuguese, Italian, etc.
€ Introductory comments, on plant description, origins, historical background,
relevance as a major food crop or as a potential food crop, botanical classifica-
tion/taxonomy, etc.
€ Planting conditions, subdivided as appropriate into subheadings:
propagation, soil, seed rate, germination, seed spacing, depth, inoculation, 
rotation, intercropping and weeding.
€ Growth conditions, subdivided into subheadings:
day length, growth period, temperature, rainfall, altitude, pests and diseases.
€ Yield. Low, average and high yield expectancy. Lowest & highest national
averages.
€ Utilisation. The main uses for the plant, not only as food but also as a source of
revenue, including its by-products, either on the farm, for sale (cash crop) or in
industry.
€ Limitations. Reasons for the crop being suitable to grow only in certain
conditions, and any inherent dangers in the plant, seed or by-products.
*
2A.  CEREALS
Of all the agricultural crops, cereals are generally considered to be the most
important. They are grown on about 75% of the worlds cultivated area, and directly
supply about two thirds of the energy and half the protein needs of the world as well
as indirectly supplying large amounts of food when converted into meat, milk, eggs
and so on.
 The increasing global demand for certain cereals such as maize to produce meat
and animal products may lead to a rapidly increasing demand for maize, possibly
overtaking demand for rice and wheat in the next two decades. In the late 1990s the
tonnage of maize and rice produced (but not the acreage) began to consistently
exceed the tonnage of wheat produced for the first time in many thousands of years, ,
and it is clear that wheat is slowly losing its place as the world s most popular cereal.



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106TONY WINCH
Genetic Modification (GM) has been very successful with maize, rice and soya, but
much less so with wheat, mainly due to the fact that most wheat varieties are
hexaploid„six copies of each gene„and are consequently more difficult to modify
genetically. 200 million acres of GM crops were grown in 2004, with positive
results in regard to yield, pesticide use, biodiversity and costs„and no negative
effects on human health. Yet GM continues to face strong opposition from the
environmental movement. The irony of this is that GM was invented in 1983 as a
safer and more gentle approach than the existing methods of generating mutant,
possibly useful, plant types. These methods include irradiation, x-rays, thermal
neutrons and ethyl methane sulphonate to damage DNA and produce random
mutations, while with GM scientists can add the specific attributes they want in a
more or less predictable way„indeed, in a more organicŽ method of manipulating
genes to introduce desirable characteristics. The jury is out ...
 As early as 1956 irradiation was used at the Atomic Energy Research
Establishment at Harwell, Oxford, UK on a barley variety called Maythorpe. This
gave rise to barley strains with shorter, stiffer straw but also with the same desirable
characters of early maturity and malting quality, culminating finally in the release of
Golden Promise.
The true cereals, which produce a grain type of fruit, are all members of the
Gramineae family„the grasses. The pseudo-cerealsŽ are from other plant families,
such as Amaranthaceae (Amaranths), Chenopodiaceae (Quinoa) and Polygonaceae
(Buckwheat). They are often regarded as cereals because their seeds are similar
nutritionally to those of the true cereals; their importance is slowly dwindling in
comparison to the trueŽ cereals.
 The great success of the cereal species is due to a number of factors: they adapt
well to a wide range of soil types, climates and cultivation methods; they are
relatively efficient in photosynthesis; they are all annuals; they are relatively hardy
(tolerant of cold, and other factors) and they recover well from damage. Most
important of all, their grain is contained in a neat package of stored energy which is
convenient to harvest, and which is easy to handle, clean and store. 
 Cereal grain is an important source of carbohydrate, fibre (insoluble and
soluble), some vitamins (B complex and E) and minerals. The fat content is about
2% (up to 7%, in dehusked oats), and highly unsaturated„maize (corn) oil is widely
traded and consumed throughout the world. The iron content of Teff is an
impressive 80…90 mg iron per 100 g. Some cereals provide useful amounts of
calcium; finger millet grain for example contains about 350 mg/100 g.
 On the negative side, cereal grains are deficient in a number of Vitamins. The
dry grain contains no B12 nor C, and very little A, D, K or B2 (Riboflavin). In
general the quality of protein in cereal grain is also poor; all of the cereals are
deficient primarily in lysine with a secondary deficiency in threonine or tryptophan.
There has been some progress with breeding high lysine varieties of maize.
 The most important cereal crops are maize, wheat and rice, which in global
terms produce approximately 80% of the total production of grain cereals. Most of
the other 20% is produced from the cereal crops described in the following pages:
barley, buckwheat, millets, oats, rye, sorghum and teff.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK107
Barley
Hordeum vulgare
Orge (French); Gerste (German); Cevada (Portuguese); Cebada (Spanish); 
Orzo (Italian); Korn (Swedish); Shair (Arabic); Sigem (Tigrinha), 
Gebs (Amharic), Garbuu (Oromifa) in Ethiopia; Jau, Jar (Hindi and Dari); 
Oorbashay (Urbashi)(Pashtu).
Cultivation of barley probably originated in highland Ethiopia and in Southeast Asia
where it has been cultivated for at least 2000 years. It was the main bread plant of
the Hebrews, Greeks and Romans. It is descended from wild barley (Hordeum
spontaneum), which still grows in the Middle East. Bread made from barley is
unleavened (flatbreadŽ) due to its low gluten content.
 Nowadays barley is the most widely distributed of all the cereals, and grows in
almost all temperate regions as well as in hotter, drier areas such as those found in
North Africa and Ethiopia, and the highland tropics.
 The annual global production of barley in 2004 was 154 million MT, about half
of which is produced in Europe; it is the fourth most important cereal after wheat,
rice and maize. 
 The plant is an annual grass (family Poaceae alt. Gramineae), 50…130 cm tall,
normally with many tillers and almost always with long (7.5…10 cm) awns, which
make the plants look like awned, or bearded , wheat.
 There are two main types of barley, which can be cross-pollinated by plant
breeders:
2 -r ow (var. distichum)„only the central spikelet develops seed. Each head
has two rows of seeds, one opposite the other. This type of barley is the favourite for
making beer, though some 2-row barleys are feed types. The average protein content
is 11.5…13%.
6 - row (var. hexastichum)„both the central and lateral spikelets develop
seed, producing six rows of seed. This type is normally used for animal food, though
6-row barleys are also used for malting. The average protein content is 12…13.5%
 A third type exists, 4-row (Hordeum tetrastichum), but is not widely grown.
 There are both spring and winter varieties of both types. There are also
intermediate winter-typesŽ, often called facultativeŽ varieties, such as Secret, that
can be planted either in the autumn or spring, but which are mainly less winter hardy
than the true winter types.
 A third type exists and is occasionally cultivated; sometimes called Abyssinian
intermediate or Ethiopian black barley, Hordeum irregulare, has fertile central
florets and varying proportions of fertile and sterile lateral florets.
To Distinguish Barley from Wheat
a) Examine the Seedling (Young Plant):
Barley has long smooth auricles, the leaves have no hairs. Wheat has hairy auricles,
the leaves have very small hairs. Oats do not have auricles:
(Big and Bare is Barley; Whiskery and Wee is Wheat; Oats have 0Ž).



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108TONY WINCH
b) Examine the Seed :
Barley has the glume and palea (seed coverings) remaining attached to the seed after
threshing. These can only be removed by grinding, to produce pearl barleyŽ, unlike
wheat which produces a chaffŽ of glumes and paleas during threshing. In fact, there
are a few nakedŽ varieties of barley, which are especially valued as human food.
 The information below relates to feed barley types unless otherwise stated.
Although malting barley types are grown in very similar (but normally better)
conditions, farmers have to apply higher standards of crop husbandry to produce
malt quality barley, which also can only be grown on certain soil types.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed, occasionally hybrid. Almost 100% self-pollinated.
Soil: barley needs less fertile soil than wheat, and adapts to a wider range of soil
types than wheat. More salt tolerant than most other cereals, though some Triticale
and Durum wheat varieties are more tolerant. Soil must not be waterlogged, and
should not be light or sandy or more acidic than pH6 (classified as sensitiveŽ to soil
acidity). 
Fertiliser„similar to wheat; a typical application is 200 kg/ha of 11:54:10 on poor
soil, and 85 kg/ha on more fertile soil. Average UK application for winter barley is
140:75:100. Potash helps to reduce damage from mildew. Malt varieties normally
receive little or no Nitrogen.
Seed rate: dryland 50…70 kg/ha, irrigated 70…120 kg/ha (maximum 200 kg/ha). If
the seed rate is too high there may be too many heads, producing thin, shrivelled
grain. Seed is often broadcast, when more seed is used than with drilledŽ (machine
planted) barley.
Seed spacing: 15…25 cm between rows. 28…30,000 seeds per kg.
Depth: 3…5 cm in temperate or humid regions, 5…8 cm in arid and semi-arid regions.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: long-day, but adapts to varying day length.
Growth period: in general, barley matures earlier than most of the other cereal
crops. The moisture content of seed should not be much above 13% at harvest, if
practical. Winter sown varieties need about 180 days or more to reach maturity,
spring varieties need about 85…120 days.
Rainfall: barley is more drought resistant than wheat, and can grow with 500 mm a
year. Nevertheless, hot and dry conditions lead to premature maturation, leaving thin
seed, with high Nitrogen content. Not suited to warm, humid climates (fungi).
Irrigation increases both seed size and yield, and decreases the Nitrogen content.
Temperature: a cool season crop, barley can grow well vegetatively in cold
weather. Very hot weather also can be tolerated during and after heading provided
that the air humidity is low. Optimum temperature for germination and emergence is
15…20°°C„the minimum is 2 C.
Rotation: often grown as a monoculture on the same land for many years, in which
case fertiliser is needed to maintain reasonable yields. Can be used as part of an
arable silage mix, with oats, beans, vetches and/or grass.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK109
Pests: mainly the same insects that attack wheat:
Aphids„especially on young plants, and after long periods of dry weather.
Barley Fly„not found on wheat. Larvae eat growing points of seedlings, producing
dead central leaves. Controlled with seed dressings.
Paddy Bugs„attack seeds. Partially controlled by removing nearby wild grasses,
which are alternate hosts. 
Hessian Fly„less harmful on barley than on wheat.
Pentatomid Bugs„attack seed at the milky stage. Controlled with insecticides. 
Chinch Bugs„worst on poor, weak crops. 
Rice Weevil„attacks stored seed. Controlled by heat treatment.
Diseases: also mainly the same ones that attack wheat. Stem Rust and Leaf Rust
(Puccinia spp.) are the most serious, causing loss of yields and thin seed. Also Net
Blotch, Spot Blotch, Barley Stripe, Powdery Mildew, Barley Leaf Blotch
(Rhyncosporium secalis), Smuts (especially Loose Smut Ustilago), Scald and virus
diseases such as BYDV , BaYMV and BSMV (Barley Stripe Mosaic Virus).  (1)(2)
(1) Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus. Main control is by controlling the aphid vector 
with pyrethroid sprays, seed „ dressing (eg Imidacloprid based) or destroying any
any green bridge. 
(2) Barley Yellow Mosaic Virus. An increasingly serious problem in Europe and 
elsewhere. The vector is a soil„borne nematode. There are some tolerant barley
varieties. BaYMV also affects  some wheat varieties.
YIELD
FAOs estimate of the global average for barley in 2004 was 2.68 MT/ha, varying
from 0.5…1 MT/ha in low input systems to 3…8 MT/ha in higher input systems. The
Netherlands reported the highest average yield in 2004 at 7.87 MT/ha while the
lowest was Lesotho at 250 kg/ha.
 The maximum attainable yield is well over 8 MT/ha. Some 6-row varieties can
attain 10 MT/ha under very intensive management.
UTILISATION
€About half of the barley grown is used as animal food, the grain normally
being mixed with other foods to produce animal food concentrates. Due to its
low gluten content, barley is not suitable for making leavened bread, though
unleavened barley bread is quite tasty.
€The growing crop can be used as fodder, and can also be grazed, especially
when irrigated. If grazing is stopped early enough a reasonable grain yield can
result„or the crop can be cut for hay or silage.
€Barley is the most important grain used for brewing beer, for which special
malting varieties are needed. In order to be acceptable for malting the grain
sample should be of specific quality regarding its Nitrogen content, size,
germination, moisture and mealiness.
€Malting quality seed is normally more valuable than food quality seed.



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110TONY WINCH
€Pearl(ed) barley, where the outer husk and part of the bran layer is ground off
the seed (leaving only the pearlŽ), and also naked barley, is eaten by humans.
Barley flour can be made from pearl barley, to make flat (unleavened) bread.
€Hulled barley (barley groats) is the least processed form of barley, with only
the outermost hull removed.
€Barley water is made by soaking pot (Scotch) or pearl barley, often flavoured
with lemon or orange.
€The straw can be used as fuel, or fed to animals; it has a low food value and is
often more suitable than wheat straw as animal bedding, being both softer and
more absorbent.
€Barley can be very useful where the soils are saline, though the tolerance to
salinity varies with the variety.
LIMITATIONS
€Barley grain is not easily prepared and eaten as human food.
€Rough-awned types used for hay or silage may damage the mouths of livestock.
€The growing crop needs either regular rainfall or irrigation.
€It does not tolerate heavy, poorly drained soils, nor very light sandy soils. It is
less tolerant of acid soils than wheat, and soils should be no more acidic than
pH6.
€Plants tend to lodge very readily. In some modern agricultural systems this
problem is reduced by applying hormone growth regulators such as Ethepon,
Terpal, Cerone, Meteor, Moddus, etc. which either reduce stem length and/or
thicken the stem walls.
€In dry climates much of the grain can be lost due to shattering, especially
malting varieties.
Buckwheat
Fagopyrum esculentum (Syn. F. sagittatum, F. vulgare)
Beechwheat, Brank, Fagopyrum, French Wheat, Garden Buckwheat, Saracen Corn,
Sarrasin, Boekweit, Chlao Mai, Hua Ch lao, Qamh Al Baqar, Tlen Chlao, Wu Mai. 
Blé Noir (French); Buchweizen (German); Trigo (Grano) Sarraceno, Trigo Negro,
Alforfón (Spanish); Fagópiro, Trigo Sarraceno, Trigo Mouro, Trigo Prêto
(Portuguese)
Buckwheat belongs to the Polygonaceae family (the docks) and is therefore, strictly
speaking, not a true cereal (Gramineae). However the grain is very similar to the
true cereals and Buckwheat is normally regarded as a cereal crop. It is normally
consumed more or less locally, though there is an increasing international trade. It is
thought to have originated in China.
 On good soils, Buckwheat is less productive than other cereals, but it is well
adapted to arid, hilly land and cool climates. It tolerates acidic, heavy and poor soils,
but they must be well drained. It also tolerates dry and arid conditions.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK111
 The kernels of the triangular shaped seeds are about 6mm long and enclosed by a
tough, dark brown, black or grey rind. Seeds contain about 6% of the essential
amino acid lysine and are also a source of Vitamin B6. The flour (96% extraction)
contains about 11% protein (very rich in lysine) and 2% fat, as well as some Vitamin
B1 and B2.
 Three other species of buckwheat are also grown: Tartary or Mountain
Buckwheat (F. tartaricum) which thrives and produces crops in very poor soils and
in a short growing season, Winged Buckwheat (F. emarginatum syn. Eriogonum
alatum) a perennial with edible roots and seeds, and Perennial Buckwheat
(F. cymosum syn. F. dibotrys) with edible seeds, and leaves that are rich in rutin.
 The plant is an annual, 50…160 cm tall, with a single stem and many branches.
The root system is only about 3% of the weight of the plant, compared with 6 …1 4%
of the true cereals. The flowers are normally white, with a pleasant honey smell, and
pollinated by bees, hoverflies and other insects.
 Buckwheat grows best in cool, moist climates, though it is frost sensitive. It is
sometimes grown in India and at high altitudes in the tropics.
 The global production of buckwheat was 2.9 million MT in 2004, according to
FAO. Russia is the main producer and it is also grown widely in France, Poland,
Ukraine, Belarus, Austria, Germany, Romania, Canada, Brazil, USA, China and
Japan.
PLANTING
Propagation: early sowings are for seed or leaf crops, later sowings are used mainly
for leaf crops or green manure.
Soil: should be light and well drained. Buckwheat grows well on poor, sandy and
acidic soils, and often does not respond well to fertilisers. However, phosphatic
fertiliser may increase yields significantly in poor soil. Too much Nitrogen causes
weak plants, and therefore exacerbates lodging. Good drainage is important.
Tolerance to soil acidity similar to oats and potatoes.
Seed rate: 40…66 kg/ha. 40…50,000 seeds per kg. It self-seeds freely.
Seed spacing: buckwheat seed is very often broadcast. 7…15 cm between plants.
Depth: 1…3 cm. Germination takes about 5 days.
Rotation: it removes large amounts of nutrients from the soil, and should ideally
follow a well fertilised crop, and be followed by a winter (ie autumn sown) crop
which is well fertilised.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: there are both long-day and day-neutral varieties.
Growth period: about 100 days. A crop of leaves can grow in 8 weeks. The seed
ripens irregularly, so it is difficult to harvest.
Temperature: buckwheat prefers a cool climate, though the plant at all stages is
killed by frost. Seed set is poor at high temperatures. Seed will germinate between
7°°C and 41 C, though the optimum is about 26°C.
Pests and diseases: these are rarely a problem. Leaf Spot (Ramularia spp.) and
Root Rots (Rhizoctonia) can occur. Wireworms and aphids sometimes cause some 



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112TONY WINCH
damage. Pythium rot is especially virulent when the plants are in standing water, but
can be cured with drainage, or fungicides such as Apron.
YIELD
Buckwheat yields globally in 2004 were estimated by FAO at 1.09 MT/ha. The
maximum yield is about 5 MT/ha. 
 The highest and lowest average yields reported by FAO in 2004 were 3.5 MT/ha
in France and 300 kg/ha in South Africa respectively.
UTILISATION
€Buckwheat seed has excellent quality protein and is normally ground into flour
for cakes, biscuits, pancakes, soups, porridge, pasta and dumplings. The residue
is suitable for animal food. The grain is also fed whole to poultry and game
birds, but for other animals it is ground up. High quality protein content of
 10…11%, 70Ž carbohydrate, 2% fat. It makes great beer.
€The hulled kernels, or groatsŽ, are prepared like rice, called kasha in Eastern
Europe and sayraisin in France. The flour does not make good bread but can be
used„either alone or mixed with wheat flour or soybean flour„to make
griddle cakes. Noodles called soba are made from it.
€The buckwheat crop makes a useful green manure, smother crop or catch
crop. It is used to reclaim badly degraded soils and subsoils, and is said to
reduce grass weed and winter wheat populations.
€It is a good source of honey; the flowers remain on the plant for 30 days or
more. A brown dye is extracted from the flowers, and a blue dye from the
stems.
€The leaves and flowering stems are widely used in medicine, normally in
conjunction with vitamin C to aid absorption. They should be stored in the dark,
and used with care as they have been known to cause light-sensitive dermatitis.
€Rutin, a flavanol glucoside used in vascular disorders associated with
hypertension, is obtained from the leaves, stems, flowers and fruit. It dilates the
blood vessels, reduces capillary permeability and lowers blood pressure. Rutin
is also found in black tea and apple peels.
LIMITATIONS
€Buckwheat plants are heavy feedersŽ ie they take up and remove large amounts
of nutrients from the soil. 
€Buckwheat crops may increase erosion as they can leave the soil more loose,
and therefore more unstable, than other small grain crops.
€The plants are frost sensitive.
€The seeds do not develop uniformly, leading to harvesting problems, volunteer
plants in the following crop, etc.
€An irritating skin disorder can appear on white or light-coloured skins if
buckwheat is consumed in large quantities, especially when the skin is exposed
to sunlight.
€Plant breeders have great difficulties in developing widely adapted improved
varieties.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK113
Maize
Zea mays
Corn, Mealies, Indian Corn, American Corn
Mais, Blé de Turquie, Turquet (French); Kukuruz, Turkischer, Weizen (German)
Milho (Portuguese); Mijo Turquesco, Maíz, Zara, Trigo de Turquía (Spanish)
Makka, Makai, Butta (Hindi); Mahindi (Kiswahili); Jawar{i} (Pashtu and Dari)
Ufun, Elbo (Tigrinha), Boqqoolloo (Oromifa), Bokkollo (Amharic); Epungu
(Angola)
Maize is one of the three major cereals in the world, together with rice and wheat.
About half of the global crop is produced in North America; China is the second
largest producer, then Brazil, Mexico and Argentina. Global production in 2004 was
721 million MT (FAO estimate).
 In nutritional terms, maize grain is mainly useful as a source of carbohydrate and
energy. 100 g of whole maize grain (at 12% mc) contains on average 362 calories,
71 g carbohydrate, 10% protein and 4.5% fat. Immature grain (corn on the cobŽ) is
even less nutritious.
 Although it is not a reliable crop for regions with limited or erratic rainfall,
where sorghum or millet normally grows better, in good rainfall areas or under
irrigation maize has a greater yield potential than any other cereal. Despite the
unreliability of maize in low rainfall areas it is often planted by farmers who accept
the risk of producing only a small yield, for two reasons: the green cobs help to fill
the hungry gapŽ, and they prefer the taste and cooking qualities of maize to
sorghum or millet (ie quality is rated higher than quantity).
 Plant breeders have selected and developed maize varieties that can adapt to
almost any environmental conditions. Some maize plants are 70 cm tall and mature
in 50 days, others are 4 m tall and need more than a year to mature. This wide range
of different plant and grain types is grouped into seven main types according to the
nature of their endosperm; there are also several intermediate types, the Semi-
FlintsŽ, etc.
Dent (Horse-tooth) Maize
Zea mays var. identata. Large grains, normally yellow or white, with soft white
starch which shrinks on drying to produce the characteristic dentŽ at the end of
each grain. This type has the biggest yield potential and is the most widely grown.
Flint Maize
Zea mays var. indurata. Compared to dent maize, they are usually earlier to mature,
their grain is rounded and without the dent ie hard endosperm only. The growing
plant is more likely to produce tillers, which is not a good habit because maize
normally only produces grain cobs on the main central stem. On the other hand they
are better adapted than dent types to growing in difficult conditions.
Soft (Flour) Maize
Zea mays var. amylacea. Grown in the drier parts of Western South America, North
America and South Africa. The grain colour is very varied, and more rounded than
dented. Soft endosperm.



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114TONY WINCH
Sweetcorn Maize
Zea mays var. saccharata. Less sugar (sucrose) is converted into starch than in other
maize types, so the grain is sweeter. Not only that, it makes the best and the
strongest beer. It is mainly grown in North America.
Popcorn Maize
Zea mays var. everata. There are two types, both mainly grown and eaten in North
America; one, the rice popcorn, has pointed grains, while the pearl popcorn has very
compact, rounded grains.
Podcorn Maize
Zea mays var. tunicata. This is the most primitive form of maize and is not grown
commercially other than as an ornamental. It was this form of maize pollen found in
Mexico that is at least 80,000 years old. Wild maize and also the earliest cultivated
maize were podcorn types. The grain is enclosed in glumes, like other cereals.
 Some South American Indians believe that podcorn maize has magical
properties„as a result of a genetic throwback, plants of this type occasionally
appear in a field of regular maize.
Waxy Maize
Zea mays var. ceritina. The starch of the grain is 100% amylopectin, while the other
non-waxy types have a mixture of amylose and amylopectin. It is grown mainly in
East Asia, and in some other areas for use as a substitute for starch.
POLLINATION OF MAIZE
The maize plant is one of the few in the plant kingdom in which the male and the
female are situated on different parts of the plant. The male tassel appears on top of
the plant, and produces an astonishing 2…5 million pollen grains„up to 20 million
on a big tassel. These pollen grains drift off into the air until they make contact with
a style, or silk from the female part of another maize plant. On the same plant, a few
days later, the female inflorescence appears, somewhere in the middle of the stem.
This female part consists of up to 1000 ovules, which can be fertilised by the pollen
when it comes in contact with the silk. Normally only one or two cobs develop per
plant, though some very prolific varieties, normally hybrids, can produce several cobs.
 Maize is thus mainly cross-pollinated, as explained above, though because the
plant is still producing some pollen when the styles appear some self-pollination
does inevitably occur, but normally in no more than about 5% of cases.
 Cross-pollination can occur between plants that are very widely separated, as the
wind can carry pollen for great distances. Because of this habit it is difficult to
maintain for any number of seasons a variety of maize which is genetically uniform.
So farmers who grow onŽ their own supply of seed every year have large and
diverse collections of germplasm and plant types, known as composite varieties
(1Fd). These farmers can be quite confident that these plants, or most of them, will
succeed next year because during previous years they have selected seed from the
best, most highly adapted, plants.
 In this way man has selected for thousands of years maize (and other crops),
which are best suited to grow in the particular area where they were farming. 



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK115
However, locally produced varieties have a limited genetic resource, and introduced
varieties, with years of international plant breeding effort behind them, can very
often grow even better.
HYBRID MAIZE
Because of the maize plants habit of bearing the male and female parts separately,
the production of hybrid maize seed on a field scale is relatively simple. The tassels
of the female parent of the hybrid are cut off and removed, so that they cannot self-
pollinate, then pollen from the male parent is taken and introduced to the styles of
the female parent. 
 The production of hybrid maize seed, using both this method and male-sterile
plant material, is an enormous business that has been hugely successful in increasing
maize yields all around the world. Chemical sterilisation to prevent pollen formation
is not yet 100% effective. 
 However, as discussed in 1Fc, page 52, hybrid seed can bring its own problems.
Note to the following:
The agronomy of maize is an enormous subject, which has been very thoroughly
discussed in hundreds of books, scientific papers, etc. The following is a brief and
incomplete summary.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed. In general, earlier planted crops perform better than later
planted ones, provided that there is adequate moisture and the soil temperature has
reached about 12°C. It is usually a good idea for food producers to plant at least
some of their maize early„those plants may not only grow better than later planted
ones, but they can be eaten sooner, and so fill the hungry gapŽ.
°
Germination: seedling emergence in moist soil of about 21…30C is 4…5 days; in
12…16°C soils it can take 15 days or more. Maize seed remains viable for 3…5 years
if stored carefully (1O).
Soil: maize adapts to most kinds of soil, from pH 5…8, though like most other crops
it prefers well drained loams of pH 6…7. In alkaline soils there may be symptoms of
iron or manganese deficiencies. It is a heavy feeder, and needs plenty of N, P and K,
Potash probably being the most important major element. It responds well to direct
placement of fertiliser (especially P) next to the seed. But although maize can and
does respond well to fertiliser there are other less expensive and troublesome ways
of increasing maize yields, such as using appropriate varieties, spacing the plants
more sensibly and accurately in the field, and timely planting. Indeed, farmers are
wasting their time, money and effort if they apply fertiliser to maize without first
attending carefully to these factors.
Seed rate: from 10…45 kg/ha or more. In general, rates are higher for hybrids and
early varieties, for early planting and for moist, fertile soils; rates are lower for later,
tall varieties in poor dry soils, as discussed in 1Fb, page 52. For forage maize, about
50,000 seeds/acre are planted.
Seed spacing: this is an important consideration because correct maize plant spacing
can significantly increase yields. Unlike other cereals maize is not good at 



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116TONY WINCH
compensating for different plant populations, which can vary from between about
15,000 and 90,000 plants per hectare. In general the plant population should be
higher in good growing conditions, but if there are too many plants they may lodge
(bend and fall over), leading to lower yields, more harvesting problems and damage
by termites, fungi, pests, etc. Plant Population is also discussed on page 4.
 The seed company that supplies the seed should be able to advise on the
appropriate spacings for their varieties in different growing conditions.
 Two or more seeds are often planted per hole, or station, but it is very important
that only the strongest plant is allowed to grow per hole. There are about 13…40,000
seeds per kg.
Depth: 3…5 cm in moist soil, 5…10 cm in drier soil. There are certain varieties that
have been bred especially for growing in dry, sandy soils and which are sown very
deep.
Intercropping: very common. Legumes are the obvious choice, and this was done
thousands of years ago, in South America for example where maize is still
traditionally grown with beans.
Rotation: maize is often cropped continuously, but this is only acceptable when
large amounts of fertiliser and high level management is practised. Nevertheless,
continuous cropping of maize has less negative effect on yield than continuous
cropping of many other crops.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: short-day. Long days increase the duration of the vegetative stage, the
plant size, and number of leaves.
Growth period: varies from about 50 to 365 and more ...  Averages are 90…120
days at low altitudes, and 180…240 days at approximately 2500 m above sea level.
Temperature: even a light frost can kill maize plants, so it normally needs about
120 frost-free days. For germination, 18…21°C is optimum„it is very slow below
13°C, and does not germinate below about 10°C. The ideal temperature at tasselling
is 21-30°C.
Rainfall: in temperate or subtropical regions 450…600 mm during the growth period
is enough; in the tropics it needs 600…900 mm. A very dry spell just before or during
tasselling is bad news for the plant, reducing yields. Maize responds very well to
irrigation, if water is a limiting factor to plant growth. If only one irrigation is
possible it should be at silking or tasselling. In arid regions, fast growing varieties
such as Kalahari, Katumani or Kito can be grown.
Altitude: 0…3300 m (in Mexico and the Andes).
Pests: maize is attacked by more than 200 different insects, some of which are
described below. Plant breeders have recently made good progress in developing
varieties resistant to multiple species of insects.
Stem (Stalk) Borer„ there are at least 4 spp.„Busseola fusca is an important one,
found mainly in higher altitudes. The adult moths lay eggs on leaves, between the
edges of the leaves and the stem; the larvae eat some of these leaves, leaving shot-
holes   or wŽindowsŽ as the leaves open, then enter the stem and feed near the growing



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK117
point. Later on they enter and eat the developing cobs. Control is very difficult if the
larvae have already entered the stems, but some of the systemic insecticides give
some control. Some varieties are said to have some resistance. Burn all infected
plant material.
Sorghum Borer„very similar to Stem/Stalk Borer, but chemical control is very
uncertain. Burn all infected plant material. 
African Armyworm„the adult moths of Spodoptera exempta can fly for hundreds of
kilometres and their larvae can cause devastating damage, normally at the end of the
maize growth period. All of the leaves can be eaten, leaving only the midribs.
Lesser Armyworm„much less damaging, and easily controlled with Malathion.
Earworm(Bollworm)„eggs of Heliothis armigera are laid on the silks, and larvae
feed on them and the developing grain.
Maize Leafhopper„transmits Mosaic Streak Virus (MSV) and other virus diseases.
Some hybrid varieties have some resistance.
Cutworms„a serious soil pest, especially in fields which were weedy before land 
preparation. Seedlings are attacked, often bitten completely through. Some control is 
possible by preparing the seedbed six weeks or more before planting, and then
keeping weeds well under control, or by using baits of wheat bran or maize meal.
Diseases: the global yield loss from maize diseases has been estimated at almost
10%, mainly caused by:
(White) Leaf Blight„Helminthosporium. Oval, grey papery lesions on the leaves,
which may die. Control by using resistant varieties.
Maize Streak Virus„spread by a leafhopper, more serious on late planted crops.
Downy Mildews„Sclerospora spp. - pale yellow streaks on the upper leaves, which
become brown and necrotic. Plants are stunted and may produce nothing. Control is
difficult; early planting may help, some varieties have some resistance, and systemic
seed dressings are also available.
Crazy Top„Sclerophthora macrospora, a form of Downy Mildew in which the
tassel and/or ear develops a proliferation of bizarre, unproductive growth.
Common Maize Rust„symptoms appear at tasselling time, or on the seedling;
leaves become covered with tiny brown spots, and then dry up. Not a serious
problem.
Maize Smut„Galls form all over the plant, which then produce black spores. The
best control is by cultivating resistant varieties.
Head Smut„ears and tassels are converted to shoot-like growths, and the plants are
stunted. Controlled with seed dressings.
Eyespot„decimates the leaves; can be a problem in Europe and elsewhere.
YIELD
According to FAO the global average for 1988/90 was 0.6…4.9 MT/ha, for the
bottom 10% and top 10% of producer countries respectively. In 2004 the global
average was 4.9 MT/ha, Israel recording the highest (16.0 MT/ha) and Botswana the
lowest (119 kg/ha).
 The yield potential, using hybrids in optimum conditions, is well over 20 MT/ha.



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118TONY WINCH
UTILISATION
More than 500 products are obtained from maize, which is used in three main ways:
€Human food, especially in the tropics and in Africa. Maize grain lacks gliadin,
one of the key proteins of gluten, and so cannot be made into leavened bread. Its
protein is poor quality and is deficient in niacin. Green maize (corn on the
cobŽ) is less nutritious than mature maize. So-called baby cornŽ is harvested
before fertilisation and contains about 90% water, and very little fat, protein or
carbohydrate.
€Animal food (stoverŽ); maize supplies two thirds of the total trade in food
grains. Compared with other cereal grains, maize has less fibre, less protein
(and of lower value) and fewer minerals, but has a higher net energy content
and is more easily digestible. The whole plant is often used as a forage crop in
Northern Europe, where cool climates limit the efficient production of crops of
maize for grain.
€Raw material for industry: both the grain and cobs are used, in adhesives,
explosives, textile sizing, dyes, plastics, chemicals, paper and wallboard, paints,
maize starch, for brewing and distilling, etc.
LIMITATIONS
€Maize will only produce good yields in relatively fertile soils and with careful
management. The plant is less drought tolerant than most millet and sorghum
varieties.
€Both the plant and grain are susceptible to insect and disease attack.
€The plant is sensitive to frost.
€The protein is of poor quality, with a very low content of lysine and tryptophan.
It is deficient in niacin (also known as nicotinic acid), and thus diets in which
maize predominates, and where there is little protein, often result in the niacin
deficiency disease known as pellagra .(1)
€The nutritional value of maize is inferior to most of the other cereals.
€The elastic protein (gluten) of maize is comparatively poor quality, and maize is
not used to produce leavened bread.
(1)
Pellagra is characterised by skin lesions and gastrointestinal and neurological
disturbances, causing the so-called 3DsŽ of pellagra: dermatitis, diarrhoea and
dementia. 
 The disease is seldom a deficiency of niacin alone - recovery usually follows a
treatment of multivitamins, or a well-balanced diet for mild or suspected cases of
pellagra.
 Maize grain is low in both niacin and tryptophan, an amino acid that is converted
by the body into niacin. Certain foods such as milk and eggs protect the body from
pellagra even though they are low in niacin itself, because they have a high
proportion of tryptophan.
 The native Americans in Mexico and Central America developed a way treating
maize with lime when making tortillas which makes the niacin available.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK119
Millets
The millets are various grass crops that are harvested for animal and human food.
Sorghum is known as milletŽ in parts of Africa and Asia.
 Compared to other cereals, millets are mainly suited to less fertile soils and
poorer growing conditions, such as intense heat and low rainfall. These poor soils
may be deficient in one or more trace elements, in which case yields of millets will
be reduced. 
 There are eight different types and many species of millet, cultivated in the
warmer regions of the world. They are mainly used as a human food grain crop, but
are also used for hay and forage (eg Guinea Grass, Panicum maximum) and for
making beer, pombe and other drinks.
 The FAO estimate of the global production of millets for the 2004 season was 29
million MT, ranking them as the 6th largest of the cereals, after maize, rice, wheat,
barley and sorghum. Millets are widely cultivated in parts of Asia, Africa, China and
Russia.
 The eight most commonly grown species for human food are listed below; the
first three millets are described in more detail later on. These eight species are all
members of the Poaceae (alt.Graminae) family, and are all in the Paniceae sub-
family except for Finger Millet which is in the Chlorideae sub-family:
 Pearl or Bulrush Millet„Pennisetum typhoides (Syn. P. americanum, P. glaucum,
 P. spicatum)
 Foxtail Millet„Setaria italica (Syn. Panicum italicum, Chaetochloa italica)
 Finger Millet„Eleusine coracana
Japanese (Barnyard) Millet„Echinochloa frumentacea (Syn. E. crusgalli). Also
known as Sanwa Millet and Billion Dollar Grass. An awnless annual 60…120 cm
tall, grown for forage, hay and grain. It is the fastest growing millet, some varieties
maturing in six weeks. Grown mainly in SE Asia and the USA, with cultivation
methods similar to those for Foxtail Millet„see later. Often grown in Egypt as a
reclamation crop on land too saline for rice. Grain is light brown to purple. Jungle
Rice E.colonum is a related species, usually considered to be a weed.
Browntop Millet„Panicum ramosum (Syn. Brachiaria ramosa). A native of India,
it is a fast growing annual 60…120 cm tall, mainly grown for hay or forage, or for
wild bird food. Its seed shatters readily and so can become a weed on arable land.
Common or Proso Millet„Panicum miliaceum. Also known as Panic Millet,
Broomcorn Millet, Brown-corn Millet, Hog Millet, Hershey Millet, Russian Millet,
India Millet and Cheena (Hindi). A very drought resistant fast growing (60…80 days)
annual about 75 cm tall, grown as a human grain crop and also as fodder and bird
seed. Good potential as a catch crop in hot dry areas with poor soils, but does not
grow well on coarse, sandy soils. Reputed to need less water to grow than any other
cereal. Mainly self fertilised, but some cross-pollination does occur.
Kodo or Koda (Ditch) Millet„Paspalum scrobiculatum var. commersonii and var.
scrobiculatum. Grown on light soils, mainly in India for forage. Hardy and drought
resistant, but low yields.



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120TONY WINCH
Little or Kutki Millet„Panicum sumatrense (Syn. P. miliare). Grown throughout
India but not very important elsewhere. Can survive on poor soils that are unsuitable
for any other cereal.
™
PEARL (BULRUSH) MILLET
Pennisetum typhoides (Syn. P. americanum, P. glaucum, P. spicatum)
Candle Millet, Spiked Millet, Cat-tail Millet, Dark Millet, Mands Forage Plant,
Penicillaria.
Mil Perle, Petit Mil, Mil à Chandelles (French); Perl Hirse, Beger Hirse (German);
Panizo Negro, Panizo de Daimiel, Mijo Perla, Mijo Candella (Spanish); 
Painço (Portuguese„grain & plant); (M)Assango, Ohuwe (Angola); Bajra, Bajri,
Cumbo, Sajje (India); Bultug (Tigray), Dehun, Zengada (Ethiopia), Sanio, Gero,
Babala, Nyoloti, Dukkin, Souna (Africa).
Pearl Millet is the most widely grown of all millets, and is the staple food in many of
the drier parts of Africa and India. It is more of a drought-avoiding crop than a
drought-resistant one, in that it can grow very quickly and so needs little moisture.
Although it cannot tolerate drought for long periods in the way that sorghum can, it
is a dependable crop which generally produces at least some yield every year in
areas where maize and even sorghum sometimes fail.
 It is an erect annual grass, 0.5…5m tall, often producing many tillers especially
when thinly spaced (low plant population) in fertile soil. The panicle (seed head) is
15…50 cm long, about 2.5 cm in diameter, very compact and light brown in colour.
The seed is normally light brown, sometimes near white or even black. There are
about 180…190,000 seeds per kg.
 Pearl millet is often dry-plantedŽ ie before the rains begin, both to take
advantage of the flushŽ of Nitrogen that occurs with the first rains and also so as to
utilise the entire rainy season, which may be very short.
 In the driest and most infertile soils in India and Africa pearl millet is very often
the most productive grain crop; if sorghum crops frequently fail, pearl millet can
often be a good substitute.
 Some semi-dwarf hybrid seed is produced, but mainly for forage varieties. Pearl
millet is normally cross-pollinated.
PLANTING
Soil: sandy loams are best. Although it will grow in infertile soils that are too light
for sorghum it does respond well to fertiliser. Nitrogenous fertilisers such as
sulphate of ammonia are especially beneficial, applied at about 200 kg/ha, followed
by a top dressing of about 100 kg/ha 4…6 weeks after planting.
Seed rate: 3…9 kg/ha for grain/seed production, 10…22 kg/ha for hay or forage. Low
plant populations are acceptable in fertile soils as the plants compensate by
producing many tillers.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK121
Seed spacing: often interplanted with other cereals or legumes. Several seeds are
often planted in stations 1.5…2 m apart, which should be thinned later. Sometimes a
second crop is interplanted between plants from the first sowing.
Depth: 2…3 cm.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: there are both short day and day neutral varieties.
Growth period: harvest starts after about 90 days and continues for several weeks.
Temperature: pearl millet tolerates higher temperatures than sorghum„32°C is
optimum. Heat is needed for growth, especially during and after flowering, though
some varieties tolerate light frost.
Rainfall: it requires less water than most other grain crops, and can grow well with
400 mm a year. Even at 250 mm a year it can produce some yield if the rains are
well distributed, or if soils are deep or retentive, and if evaporation is not too high.
Weeds: it can sometimes be grown in Striga-infested land (1L) which can no longer
support maize or sorghum. The plants benefit from careful weeding in the early
stages.
Rotation: ideally it follows groundnuts or other legumes.
Pests: pearl millet is often badly damaged by birds. The main insect pest is Stem
Borer (Coniesta ignefusalis), and several caterpillars and grasshoppers also damage
its leaves. Stored seed can be protected with insecticides. Bird damage, such as by
Quelea, can be devastating.
Diseases: Downy Mildew (Green Ear)„probably the most serious disease, though
some varieties have some resistance, Smut„the panicles become blackened, Ergot -
the grains become purple and enlarged, and should not be eaten, by either man or
animals, and Rust„leaves become infected, but little damage is caused. Rain at
flowering may lead to Honeydew (Sugary) Disease.
YIELD
Pearl millet yields are very variable. The global average yield of pearl millet is about
850 kg/ha, though yields of 200…300 kg/ha are common. 
 3 MT/ha or more is possible in fertile soil with irrigation. More than 17 MT/ha
of dry forage is possible.
UTILISATION
€Grain: normally eaten as a porridge, cake or unleavened bread. It is sometimes
fed to animals, but is more commonly used to make beer. It stores well. €Stems: useful for building material, fencing and fuel.
€Whole plant: grown for grazing and for hay, and sometimes for silage( eg in
North America).
LIMITATIONS
€Yields of pearl (bulrush) millet are normally rather low.
€The seed heads are very susceptible to bird damage.
€The stems and leaves (haulm) is woody and not very digestible to animals.



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122TONY WINCH
FOXTAIL MILLET
Setaria italica ( Syn. Panicum italicum, Chaetochloa italica)
Italian Millet, German Millet, Hungarian Millet, Siberian Millet
Sétaire dItalie, Millet des Oiseaux (French); Borstenhirse (German); 
Kakun (Hindi); Dana, Mijo Menor, Panizo Comun (Spanish); 
Painço (Portuguese„grain and plant)
It is thought that this very ancient crop originated in China where it was grown in
the north-west of the country 5000 years ago. It is now the most important millet in
Japan.
 It is an annual plant, 30…200 cm tall, with more slender and leafy stems than
pearl millet. The panicle colours vary from creamy white, pale yellow, orange,
reddish orange to dark purple„or mixtures of these colours. Unlike pearl millet the
panicles often curve downwards; they are 7…25 cm long, 1…5 cm in diameter. The
flowering period lasts for 10…15 or more days; they are mainly self-pollinated
though cross-pollination also occurs.
 The mature grain is up to about 2 mm long, with the husk (the lemma and palea)
tightly held onto the testa. Grain colour varies from white, pale yellow to orange,
red, brown or black.
 Foxtail millet grows very quickly„it can mature in 10 weeks or so„and so can
be very useful as a catch crop. The plants look very much like the 3 common weeds,
the yellow, green and giant foxtails. It is mainly grown in India, Japan, China,
southeast Europe, North Africa and America.
PLANTING
Soil: good drainage is important. Foxtail millet adapts to a very wide range of soil
types including infertile ones.
Seed rate: 4…6 kg/ha when planted in rows, 11…17 kg/ha when broadcast on to clean
land, 27…33 kg/ha when broadcast onto poor or weedy soil. There are about 450…
500,000 seeds per kg.
Spacing: often intercropped with legumes or other cereals. As a monoculture, the
plants should be closely spaced, 5…6 cm between plants and 20…30 cm between
rows, to smother weeds.
Depth: foxtail millet seeds are small and should only be planted into moist soil; up
to 3 cm deep if necessary, for example in sandy soil.
Rotation: best if grown after legumes or another small grain or maize. In dry
regions some crops yield poorly after foxtail millet, unless irrigated and/or fertilised.
Intercropping: this is commonly done, with legumes, cotton, finger millet and other
cereals.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: the grain matures in 75…120 days. Hay can be made from some
varieties in 55…65 days. This fast growth can make it useful as a late-planted catch
crop (1Gc).



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK123
Temperature: warm weather is needed for plant development.
Rainfall: it is more of a drought avoidingŽ species than a truly drought resistantŽ
one, by virtue of its rapid growth. It has a shallow root system, so it wilts readily,
and also does not recover well from long periods of dry weather.
Altitude: up to 2000 metres ASL.
Weeds: the seedlings compete poorly with weeds, so weeds should be controlled in
young crops.
Diseases: normally not a big problem as Foxtail Millet is normally grown in arid
regions, but the following diseases can reduce yields to some extent: mildews, leaf
spots, green ear, smut and bacterial blight. Seed dressings can give some control, but
this is rarely done.
YIELD
The average yield of foxtail millet is between about 400 and 900 kg/ha of grain or
seed, and between two and twelve MT/ha of hay.
UTILISATION
€Grain„used by humans, either cooked whole, ground into a flour or made into
beer. It can also be fed to animals, after it is ground up thoroughly, or to caged
birds.
€Whole plant„makes quite good hay and silage, suitable for cattle and sheep.
LIMITATIONS
€Yields of foxtail millet tend to be low.
€Weeds must be kept well under control.
€There is a shortage of improved varieties, and seed of any kind is often hard to
source.
€The hay and silage is not popular with livestock.
™
FINGER MILLET
Eleusine coracana
African Millet, Birdsfoot Millet, Korakan or Coracan Millet, Indian Millet, 
Ragi (Raggee) Millet, Nagli;
Eleusine, Coracan, Millet de Yokohama (French); Korakan, Ragihirse, Afrikanische
(German); Coracán, Ragi, Mijo Africano, Mijo Coracana, Mijo Digitado (Spanish);
Milheiro (Portuguese„general term for milletsŽ); Wimbi (Kiswahili); Ragi,
Koracan, Maruwa (India); Bulo (Uganda); Telebun (Sudan); Dagoosha (Tigrinha),
Daguussa (Amharic and Oromifa); Oluko, Kaluku (Angola)
Finger millet is an important staple food in parts of Central and East Africa and India.
In parts of Uganda it is the most important cereal. It is either prepared and eaten like 



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124TONY WINCH
most other millets or made into beer, for local consumption. It often produces some
yield where other cereal crops would have failed due to drought.
 The plant is a short, hardy annual, about 1…1.5 m tall, which is normally self-
pollinated. It is less susceptible to bird damage than the other millets or sorghum. 
 In parts of Africa and India many different varieties are available, which are
often grown together in the same field.
 The seed, which is sometimes yellow or white but is more normally brown or red
in colour, is 1…2 mm in diameter, with about 300,000 … 450,000 grains per kg.
 One of the best attributes of finger millet is that its seed can remain viable for up
to ten years if it is stored in a cool, dry place. In marginal conditions, finger millet is
stored in this way for use in emergencies such as famine. The seed is a rich source of
calcium (0.33…0.36%), as well as phosphorus and iron.
PLANTING
Soil: a wide range of soil types are suitable, though reasonably fertile sandy soils are
best. Finger millet responds well to fertilisers (and good management); average
applications are, in kg/ha, N 25…90, P 20…45, and K 0…45.
Seed rate: 20…30 kg/ha broadcast, 5…10 kg/ha sown in rows.
Seed spacing: there are 400…500 seeds per gram. Often mixed with legumes or
sorghum. In a monoculture, the rows are about 45 cm apart. Five or six seeds are
often planted in groups at 20 cm intervals along the row, and thinned later.
Depth: 1…2 cm (3 cm maximum). The land should be well prepared.
Intercropping: very common, with pigeon peas and other legumes, sorghum, Niger
seed, etc.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: there are 3 types of finger millet: early (95…100 days), medium
(105…110) and late (115 or more days). Many older varieties mature in 125 days or
more.
Rainfall: 600…1300 mm/a, which should be well distributed due to finger millets
root system, which although quite extensive is shallow. The plants respond well to
irrigation, but do not like heavy rainfall.
Altitude: 0…2000 metres. In Africa, mainly above 1000m.
Pests: the plants can harbour the wheat curl mite, a vector of wheat streak mosaic
virus, so wheat should not follow a finger millet crop.
Weeds: young finger millet plants (2.5…5 cm tall) should be well weeded. The wild
species, Eleusine africana, is identical to finger millet before flowering and can
become a big problem.
Pests & diseases: these are rarely any problem, but Helminthosporium diseases
can cause leaf spots, seedling blight and head blight. Grain smut has been reported.
YIELD
The average for finger millet is about 1 MT/ha, though more than 4 MT/ha is quite
possible. In Africa the whole head is usually cut off with a knife and stored until 



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK125
needed. In India the whole plant is either pulled up or cut off at ground level, then
stacked in the field until dry.
UTILISATION
€Finger millet is used in much the same way as pearl and foxtail millets. In parts
of North and Central Zambia finger millet is the main cereal crop. Unlike
sorghum and pearl millet, finger millet is not normally attacked by birds.
€It is frequently malted and made into beer.
€One great advantage of finger millet is that it can be stored, even in poor
conditions, for up to about 10 years without serious deterioration or weevil
damage, and so it can serve as a valuable famine reserve food.
LIMITATIONS
€There are very few problems with finger millet, though yields are often low.
Threshing and cleaning the grain, seedbed preparation and weeding the young
seedlings can be very labour intensive.
€The young seedlings are easily overcome by weeds or drought.
€The protein content is relatively low, about 5…6%.
€Very limited research work is done on this potentially very useful crop.
€Most of the improved varieties which are currently available are not adapted to
grow well in marginal conditions.
Oats
Avena sativa
Dousar, Groats, Common Oats, Steel-cut Oats, Cat Grass, Rolled Oats
Avoine (French); Hafer, Saathafer (German); Avena (Spanish); Aveia (Portuguese);
Jaie (Hindi); Yulaf (Persian); Gandiala Ahelee (Pashtu); 
Addja (Amharic, Ethiopia); Omborrii (Oromifa, Ethiopia)
Oats are grown throughout the world in the cool, damp parts of temperate regions, or
at high altitudes in the tropics. They are one of the most important temperate cereals
and can be grown in a wider ecological zone than wheat or barley. FAO estimated
that the 2004 global production was 26 million MT, making oats the seventh most
important of the cereals in terms of production. The main producers are the USA,
Belarus, Russia, Kazakstan, Canada, France, Poland, Finland, Germany and
Australia. The production of oats has decreased in many countries as a result of
increasing mechanisation which is replacing horses, the main consumer of oats.
 Oats are mainly used as animal food, both the grain and straw being eaten. They
are commonly consumed on the farm, so a high proportion does not reach the
marketplace.
 The plants have large, open, spreading panicles (seed heads) with large spikelets,
both awned and awnless (without awns) varieties They are all members of the
Poaceae family and are 99% self-pollinated (cross-pollination is by wind).



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126TONY WINCH
The grain is high in carbohydrate and contains more protein than other cereals (up to
almost 20%) and 5…9% of highly unsaturated fat. It is a source of calcium, iron,
vitamin B1 and nicotinic acid.
 Two other cultivated species of oats are found:
€Avena byzantina„Red or Algerian Oats„of Asian origin, it is more resistant
to heat and is grown in the warmer regions of North Africa, Argentina and
southern North America.
€Avena abyssinica„Abyssinian Oats„grown mainly in Ethiopia. Normally
intercropped with barley, the two crops being planted, harvested and eaten
together. Plant breeders have crossbred Red Oats (A. byzantina) with Yellow or
White Oats (A. sativa) to produce a number of new cultivars.
PLANTING
Soil: of all the cereals, oats are second only to rye in their ability to survive in poor
soils. Best in neutral silt and clay loam, though oats can grow on moderately acid
soil where wheat or barley would fail. Waterlogged and high N soils can lead to
lodging, and oats are more susceptible to this than the other cereals. Moderate
tolerance of saline soil. Fertiliser requirements similar to wheat and barley, but less
N is required.
Rotation: oats should not be followed by another cereal, especially rye (or oats).
Seed rate: In the sub-tropics, 30…70 kg/ha on dryland, 50…80 kg/ha irrigated. 
In temperate regions, 150…220 kg/ha for winter types, 190…250 kg/ha for spring
types. 28…35,000 seeds per kg.
Seed spacing: 18 cm between rows.
Depth: 4…5 cm.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: long-day.
Growth period: 180…220 days. Harvest should be just before the seed is fully ripe;
oats shatter easily, so a lot of seed can be lost on the ground.
Rainfall: about 750 mm per year is the minimum. Irrigation is most effective at
flowering.
Temperature: oat plants can be damaged by frost in very cold winters. Hot dry
weather before heading can cause seed loss.
Germination: storage conditions and seed viability for oats are similar to wheat.
Rotation: oats can be suitable as a pioneer crop, the first crop sown after breaking in
new land. Best after a root crop and not after another cereal, especially rye. They
should not be grown on the same land for too many years as eelworms can build up.
The plants are more prone to lodge if grown after a legume or if the soil has a high
Nitrogen content.
Pests: more resistant to insect attack than wheat or barley. Most problems are
caused by: armyworms, grasshoppers, leaf hoppers, crickets, grain bugs and frit fly.
Diseases: seed diseases include loose and covered smut, and stripe, all controlled by
seed dressings. Foliar diseases include rusts, especially Puccinia spp., controlled
with resistant varieties. Powdery Mildew (Erysiphe graminis) can also be a problem.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK127
YIELD
The global average yield of oats in 2004 was 2.2 MT/ha according to FAO, though 7
or 8 MT/ha is possible in good growing conditions. 
 The UK reported the highest average yield for that year (6.0 MT/ha) and Israel
the lowest (363 kg/ha).
 Harvesting should be done in good time (early) to minimise shattering.
UTILISATION
€Oats are mainly used for animal food; both the grain - rolled, and with husks -
and the straw are eaten. The straw is highly absorbent, and so is good for
bedding.
€The rest of the grain is dehusked and used for human food, as oatmeal, porridge,
oat cakes, muesli, etc. Grain from so-called naked oatŽ varieties, where the
husk does not develop, is also used, mainly for breakfast cereals.
€Oatbran, and to a lesser extent oatmeal, are rich sources of inositol, part of the
vitamin B complex and important in nerve transmission, the metabolism and
movement of fats and for reducing blood cholesterol levels. Inositol is also
found in a wide variety of other food, including beans, citrus fruit, meat, raisins,
seeds and nuts, etc.
€In some cold regions the young plants of winter sown types are grazed in
spring. If no top dressing is applied the grain yield may be reduced a little,
though with crops which are too thick (winter proudŽ) the yield is often
increased by grazing.
€The plants can make good hay and silage.
€In industry, oat hulls are sometimes used as a source of furfural (or
furfuraldehyde) a chemical intermediate in the production of many industrial
products such as solvents and resins.
LIMITATIONS
€Very few, although other cereals normally produce higher income per hectare.
€Oats and oat products can rapidly turn rancid due to the presence of free fatty
acids which produce a soapy taste due to the activity of an enzyme called lipase,
though this can be rendered harmless by steam treatment.
€Oat plants can and do lodge badly, especially in fertile soils.
€The seed shatters very readily when ripe.
€The seed:husk ratio is very low - the husk can weigh 25% of a grain sample.
Also it can be more difficult to separate this husk (the chaffŽ) from the grain
than wheat and barley.
€Breeding of improved varieties of oats with wide adaptation has only had
limited success.



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128TONY WINCH
Rice
Oryza sativa
Riz (French); Reis (Germany); Arroz (Spanish & Portuguese); Ruz (Arabic and
Amharic); Ruzii (Oromifa); Bariis (Somali); Vreejay, Oreeji, Wriji (Pashtu); Brenj,
Shali (Dari); Dhan chaval (Hindi)
Rice provided 700 calories/day/person or more for approximately 2.9 billion people
during the year 1997, according to FAO. Rice is the most important cereal in the
tropics, and in global terms the tonnage of rice grown is similar to that of maize and
wheat (FAO estimates for 2004 were 605, 721 and 627 million MT respectively).
 There are more than 20 species of Oryza, but only O. sativa, Asian Rice, and
O. glaberrima, African Rice, are widely cultivated. African Rice is very similar to
Asian Rice; grown mainly in the flood plains of the Sahel, it has poor quality dark
coloured grains; it is used in some West African rituals. The two species were first
successfully crossed in 2002, with promising results for the hybrid.
 One of the species, Oryza rufipogon and others, is Perennial Wild Rice
(Brownbeard Rice, with many synonyms), an aggressive and serious weed in rice
fields. Evidence suggests that O.sativa was originally derived from O.rufipogon; the
two species hybidise readily, producing a highly variable range of weedy perennial
wild rice types, including annual types, and much taxonomic confusion. The seed is
red-brown colour, 5…7 mm long. It propagates by seed (which shatters prematurely)
and by rhizomes.
 The other Wild Rice, Zizania aquatica (family Poaceae), sometimes called
American Wild Rice, grows in eastern North America and was once an important
food of the Indians living in that area. It is now cultivated to produce a highly
valued, nutritious food, the caviarŽ of cereals. It is a rich source of niacin and
riboflavin.
 Improved varieties of rice have been developed so far mainly for irrigated and
favourable lowland areas, but in some countries their yield advantages are more than
offset by the higher prices of traditional rices such as the aromatic Basmati types.
Classification of Rice
The classification (taxonomy) of rice is not simple, and can be based on at least four
different characteristics:
1. Cultivation Methods. On this basis there are three types:
€Upland (Hill or Dryland Paddy)„varieties which can be grown in regions with
adequate rainfall for 3-4 months. Cultivation methods are similar to other
cereals.
€Paddy (Lowland or Swamp)„grown on artificially flooded fields. Some
varieties are adapted to grow under both paddy and upland conditions.
€Floating„very rapid plant growth keeps up with the rising level of water, up to
5m deep.
2. Grain Characteristics. On this basis there are two types, glutenous and non-
glutenous. Most varieties are non-glutenous.
3. Grain Shape and Size. On this basis there are four types: long, slender grain;
long grain; medium grain; short grain.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK129
4. Growth Period. There are two main classifications, used in different parts of the
world. In North America and other countries: very early maturing (96…117 days);
early maturing (117…132 days); mid-season (132…150 days); late (150…180 days).
In India: very early (less than 110 days); early (110…140 days); late (150…170 days);
very late (180 days +). Some varieties only mature in 260 days.
There are 3 sub-species of Oryza sativa:
1. ssp. indica„Tropical Rice, mainly grown between latitude 0°° and 25 in the tropi-
cal monsoon zones. 1…3 month seed dormancy. Tall, leafy, many tillers, susceptible
to lodging, low response to fertiliser, more hardy and resistant to diseases and 
and poor growing conditions, photoperiod sensitive.
2. ssp. japonica„Temperate or Pearl Rice, mainly grown in temperate regions. Short, 
stiff straw and therefore resistant to lodging, fewer leaves or tillers, early maturing,
It is grown mainly in Japan, South Korea, North China, New South Wales, South
Europe, California and South America.
3. ssp. javanica„Javanese Rice, mainly in equatorial regions. Low yield potential.
Varieties of Rice
Many thousands of varieties of rice are available„more than 5000 in India alone.
As rice is mainly self-pollinated, farmers can save their own seed from year to year
and so build up their own composite variety (discussed in 1Fd, page 53) that is
adapted to their area. Mixtures of varieties are also commonly grown together.
Varieties often display different characteristics when grown in different
environments.
 The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), is based in the Philippines and
has had great success in breeding improved rice varieties, particularly hybrids.
Varieties developed and released by IRRI are prefixed with IRŽ eg IR8, IR20, etc.
Development of perennial rice strains has not yet proved very successful.
 Hybrid rice has been growing in popularity since the 1970s; in China in 1992-93
for example, 19 million hectares of hybrid rice was planted, around 65% of the
countrys rice area. Under irrigation, hybrids generally yield about one MT per
hectare more than the semi-dwarf modern conventionalŽ varieties. Future hybrid
rice seed could be based on apomixis (discussed in pages 2 and 3)„apomixis is
asexual reproduction whereby farmers could retain apomictic hybrid seed from their
own crops for many seasons.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed. Although often planted first in nurseries and transplanted at
4…6 weeks, there is often no yield advantage to this system though there are other
advantages. The seed can be planted directly into dry soil, and the field then
submerged; or it can be broadcast into a water-submerged field; or sown into a wet
field, in which case the seed is often pre-germinated ie soaked in water for 24…36
hours, then kept in the dark for a further 24…36 hours.
Germination: most indica varieties have a 1…3 month dormancy. Japonica varieties
and others that are insensitive to photoperiod (1Ej) have no dormancy period. The 



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130TONY WINCH
optimum temperature is 30…35°C. The seed can germinate under water, but more
slowly than when planted into moist soil.
Soil: heavy soils, especially alluvial soils of river valleys and deltas, are better than
light soils„they can be puddledŽ, and also they lose less water and nutrients
through percolation. The optimum pH is 5.5…6.5 when dry, which becomes pH 7.0…
7.2 on flooding. Some varieties are classified as tolerantŽ to acidity; other varieties
can grow in soils with pH 8…9, and these can be used to reclaim saline or sodic soils.
Phosphate is often a major factor in limiting yields.
Seed rate: Paddy: 90…110 kg/ha drilled in 15…20 cm rows, 135…230 kg/ha broadcast,
160…170 kg/ha broadcast from a plane. Upland: 100…120 kg/ha in 20…25 cm rows,
30…50 kg/ha in 50 cm rows. There are about 30…35,000 seeds per kg.
Seed spacing: (between rows) Paddy: 20…30 cm for later varieties, 10…20 cm for
earlier varieties. Upland: 20…50 cm. The plant population is normally about 100…120
per square metre.
Depth: Paddy: 5…6 cm in light loams, 2…3 cm in heavy clays. Upland: 1…3 cm.
Intercropping: not suitable for paddy rice. Upland rice is sometimes mixed with
other crops, especially in shifting cultivation systems.
Rotation: rice is often grown in soils unsuitable for other crops, so monocropping is
common. Green manure crops such as Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) are often
planted between rice crops. The green manure should be ploughed in just before
flooding. Or 2…3 years of rice can be rotated with 2…3 years of grazing, either with
volunteer rice plants, or better still with pasture mixtures including legumes. There
are often fish in paddy fields, which are sometimes introduced; even prawns and
crayfish have been used. In these cases great care must be taken with pesticides.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: most rice types are short-day plants, but varieties differ in their
response. There are two main groups of rice varieties:
1. Season-limited (date fixed)„they flower on a certain date whenever they are
planted. For example, the growth period of the variety Siam 29 varies from 162 to
313 days depending on when it is planted. Many of the tropical indica rices are
season-limited.
2. Time-limited (period fixed)„their growth period is more or less the same no
matter when they are planted. Many of the temperate japonica rices are time-limited.
 Most modern varieties are insensitive to photoperiod and so can be grown in a
wide range of latitudes.
Growth period: see above. If early (ie short growth period) varieties which are
insensitive to photoperiod are grown, 3 crops per year are possible.
Temperature: an average temperature of 20°C during the entire growth period is
required, with 22…38°C being optimum during the main growth period, and a
minimum of about 25°C during flowering. The plant requires long periods of
sunshine, especially for the final six weeks or so. Irrigation water ideally should be
between 21 and 30°C.
Rainfall: water is normally a more limiting factor than soil. Rice grows mainly in
the humid tropics and is one of the few crops that can be grown in the evergreen
forest belt.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK131
Paddy rice„transplanted into a well-soaked field, with some standing water;
the water level is slowly increased to 15…30 cm as the plants grow, then decreased
at flowering until almost dry at harvest.
 Upland rice„900 mm minimum during the growth period, or many light
3
irrigations, 10…15 or more, to provide a total of between 400 and 600 m /ha.
For both types of rice the two most critical periods for water supply are 10…12 days
before tillering, and during flowering.
Altitude: the terms uplandŽ and lowlandŽ rice are misleading. Very often the so-
called upland varieties are grown at much lower altitudes than lowland varieties, and
vice versa.
Diseases: Leaf Blight and Leaf Streak are caused by bacteria. At least 11 fungi also
attack rice, of which five are described below:
…Blast. The most widespread and devastating. Plants can be attacked by this fungus
at all stages. Small blue flecks appear on the leaves, which become brown with grey
centres; these spread until the whole leaf becomes brown. If the attack is early, the
grains do not fill and the panicle falls over, hence the other name for this disease
rotten neckŽ. Control is by resistant varieties and use of clean seed; copper
fungicides and seed dressings may also help to some extent.
… Brown Spot. Damage occurs both in nurseries and fields, especially in cold
weather. Control is by seed dressings and burning the stubble of infected crops.
… Narrow Brown Leaf Spot. Foliage dies off early. Controlled with resistant
varieties.
… Gigantism (Foot Rot or Bakanae Disease). Caused by a Gibberella fungus.
Common in Asia, especially in seedbeds. Plants become very tall and thin, with few
tillers; the panicle emerges poorly, and the grain is shrivelled. Occurs in wet soils
above about 20°C. Control is by seed dressings and destruction of diseased
seedlings.
… Stem Rot (Sclerotial Disease). Excessive late tillers, and loss of grain. Normally
only occurs when plants are in unfavourable conditions. Control is by burning
infected stubble and by taking care with the irrigation water, which spreads the
disease.
There are also nine Virus Diseases, including Hoja Blanca, Yellow Dwarf, Orange
Dwarf, Dwarf, Tungro and Grassy Stunt.
Pests: extensive damage is frequent, both in fields and stores. The worst of the field
pests are stem borers, leaf miners, armyworms, grasshoppers, locusts and various
nematodes. Rice is also damaged by rats, crabs and birds. Storage pests include Rice
Weevil, Lesser Grain-borer, Khapra Beetle, Saw-toothed Grain Beetle and the
Angoumois Grain Moth.
YIELD
According to FAO, the global average for 1988/90 was 0.9…6.6 MT/ha for the
bottom 10% and top 10% of countries respectively, being higher in Asia and lower
in South America and Africa. The global average figure for paddy rice in 2004 was
4.0 MT/ha, ranging from 9.69 MT/ha in Egypt to 750 kg/ha in the Congo.
 The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines and other
plant breeders have increased rice yields by two or three times since the 1960s.
Modern hybrids and open pollinated varieties can yield around 10 MT/ha in ideal
conditions.  



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132TONY WINCH
 The gap in yields between irrigated and non-irrigated areas has widened, and is
expected to widen further. Yields of rice grown in the Northern, temperate zones are
almost double those grown between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer. This is
mainly due to better management, increased use of fertiliser, more reliance on
irrigation and less on rainfall, and the use of japonica types, which have a higher
yield potential than the indica types normally grown in the tropics.
UTILISATION
€About half of the rice grown is consumed on the farms where it is grown. Apart
from human consumption rice has few other uses. The husks left after
pounding the paddyŽ (this word applies both to the unhusked grain and to the
growing crop) is not suitable as animal food nor as fertiliser; this bran is used in
bedding, litter, fuel and building materials such as hardboard.
€The rice bran (or rice meal) left after pearling and polishing is a valuable
source of animal and poultry food. Milling of rice greatly reduces its human
food value.
€The straw can be fed to animals but it is inferior to other cereal straws. It is also
used for strawboards, for thatching and brading, and for making hats, packing
material, broom straws and mats. In Thailand and China the straw is used for
the culture of mushrooms.
€So-called riceŽ paper is made from the pith of the rice-paper tree (Tetrapanax
papyriferum), a member of the Araliaceae or ginseng family, not from rice.
LIMITATIONS
€Rice can be a very labour intensive crop to grow. In some primitive systems
more than 800 man-hours per hectare are needed to produce a crop.
€Monocropping is often inevitable as there may be few or no other crops suitable
for growing in the paddies. This tends to lead to a build up of diseases, insects
and weeds.
€Many varieties of rice, including hybrids and especially photosensitive indica
types, are adapted to grow well only in small, limited regions. They
sometimes also need to be planted within a specific and rather short period of
time, and to be heavily fertilised, in order to produce an economic yield.
€The protein content of the grain of 6…8% is rather modest.
(*)
€When a high proportion of the diet is white rice, there may be a risk of beriberi ,
a disease arising from a deficiency of thiamin (Vitamin B1, or aneurin), other
B vitamins and minerals.
 (*)
Beriberi„also known as Athiaminosis and Kakke Disease.
A disease of the nerves of the arms and legs, commonly found in eastern and 
southern Asia. Symptoms include fatigue, diarrhoea, appetite and weight loss, dis- 
turbed nerve function (dry beriberi, or endemic neuritis) causing paralysis and 
wasting of limbs, water retention, swelling of body (edema) and heart failure (wet 
beriberi). 
 The name comes from the Sinhalese language, I cannot, I cannotŽ.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK133
The risk of beriberi developing can be reduced by parboilingŽ, an ancient Indian 
technique, in which the rice is steeped in hot water, steamed and then dried prior to 
milling. This process causes the movement of vitamins and minerals from the hull 
and bran into the endosperm, so that the resulting milled, white rice is nutritionally 
more valuable than regularly cooked white rice.
Rye
Secale cereale
Seigle (French); (Saat)-Roggen (German); Segale, Centeno (Spanish); Centeio
(Portuguese); Seigle/Segale Comune (Italian), Almindelig Rug (Danish &
Norwegian); Råg (Swedish); Rúgur (Icelandic); Rogge (Dutch); Ruis (Finnish); 
Jau Dahr {Bearded BarleyŽ} (Pashtu and Dari); Zyto (Russian)
Rye is grown mainly in Europe (Germany, Poland, Belarus and the Czech Republic),
Russia and the Ukraine, and in the US. Global production is slowly declining, and
was estimated by FAO as being 13.8 million MT in 2004„of the cerealsŽ (so-
called), only buckwheat produced less tonnage globally.
 True rye bread is becoming less popular these days and a similar type of bread,
retaining some of the original characteristics, is now made from a blend of rye and
wheat flour. Ryebread is aerated by the use of a leaven (sourdough) rather than
yeast.
 The plant is a hardy annual, or biennial, 0.5…2.5 m tall, with long awns. The seed
heads are 7.5…15 cm long, with 2-flowered spikelets. The seed looks very similar to
wheat (about 20…40,000 seeds per kg). It can be successfully intercropped with
wheat.
 The main agronomic attributes of rye are its hardiness, its ability to grow on
light, acidic soils and its high gluten content. There are both spring and winter types
and varieties of rye. Spring varieties normally require 10…12 days vernalisation,
winter varieties need 40…60 days.
 Rye (family Poaceae) has been successfully hybridised by plant breeders. In
1875 a Scottish botanist was the first to cross rye with wheat, to form a newŽ crop
known as Triticale, which combines the high yield of wheat (Triticum) with the
winter-hardiness of rye (Secale). This bigeneric hybrid contains one set of rye
chromosomes and 3 sets of wheat chromosomes, and early Triticales were sterile
and produced disappointing plants. Modern varieties can be intercrossed, and also
crossed with wheat. The grain protein content is a respectable 14…20%, and it
contains more thiamin and folic acid than either of its parents, but less niacin or
Vitamin B6. Has enough gluten for bread flour.
 The global production of Triticale in 2004 was 13.8 million MT, according to
FAO, at an average yield of 4.1 MT/ha (with the highest average of 7 MT/ha in
Belgium, and the lowest of 846 kg/ha in Portugal).
 Rye can also be crossed with Durum Wheat to produce a sterile hybrid.
 Rye is naturally cross-pollinated, by wind; self-pollination produces shrivelled,
weak seed. As a result, seed should be bought in when possible (every year if
feasible) as it is difficult for farmers to maintain their own pure seed.



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134TONY WINCH
PLANTING
Soil: rye grows well in a very wide range of soils, including poorly drained and
infertile, sandy soils. Tolerant of acid soils. Relatively resistant to lodging, even
under high Nitrogen conditions. Responds well to fertiliser; may need N and P in
sandy soils.
Seed rate: 40…50 kg/ha on dryland, 55…70 kg/ha on irrigated land. Up to 200 kg/ha
may be used, on fertile soils in Northern Europe for example. Higher rates are used
for spring sown types.
Seed spacing: 17.5…38 cm between rows.
Depth: 1.2…5 cm (4…5 cm in dry, sandy soils).
Rotation: Ideally rye follows a summer fallow or a root crop. It should never follow
an oat crop. Because the seed head shatters readily volunteer plants often appear in
the next crop, which may be a problem if Ergot is present„see DiseasesŽ, below.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: long-day.
Growth period: 180…220 days. Rye should be harvested when the seed is at the
wax-ripeŽ stage because much seed is lost from shattering if the seed heads are left
to full maturity.
Temperature: winter sown types require vernalisation (1Fg). Rye is the most
winter hardy of all the cereals, and needs only about 15…20°C for its seed to mature. 
Rainfall: relatively drought resistant, though shattering increases if drought occurs
when the seed heads are maturing. Optimum is 600…1000 mm a year, while it can
grow with between 400 and 2000 mm. Often grown under irrigation, especially in
South Africa and America; irrigation at flowering time is especially beneficial.
Altitude: up to 4000 m.
Pests: the same as for wheat and barley.
Diseases: rye is resistant to the Smut diseases. The most serious disease is Ergot
(Claviceps purpurea) a fungus which produces large, misshapen purple growths in
place of the seed. These ergots contain the alkaloid ergotoxine, poisonous to both
man and animals. Control is by the use of clean seed. To remove ergots from a seed
sample, the whole sample can be immersed in a 20% salt solution; the seed falls to
the bottom, the ergots float to the surface and are skimmed off. The seed is then
rinsed in clean water and dried.
YIELD
The global average for rye in 2004 was estimated by FAO at 2.5 MT/ha, ranging
from an average of 6.7 MT/ha in Switzerland to 310 kg/ha in South Africa.
 2…3000 kg/ha of straw is a good yield in optimum conditions. To reduce loss of
seed from shattering, harvesting is often done at dawn and dusk. 
 Premature harvesting leads to low quality, low germination seed. Delayed
harvesting can lead to large losses of seed from shattering.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK135
UTILISATION
€The seed of rye contains a high proportion of gluten, and is used for making
black bread (schwartzbrot), rye crispbreads (knaeckebrot in Scandanavia) and
biscuits, whisky (in America and Canada), gin (in Holland), beer (in Russia)
and rye starch. Pumpernickel is a dark brown bread made from unsifted rye
flour, and for many centuries was a staple food in much of eastern and central
Europe.
€Rye is often planted, either alone or in mixtures with other forage crops, and
grazed by livestock when the plants are green and young.
€The straw can be fed to animals, but it is poor quality fodder and is more often
useful for animal bedding or for construction of buildings.
€The dried sclerotia of ergot are sometimes used in pharmacy, as the source of
certain alkaloids to produce Ergotamine; this causes constriction of the blood
vessels and is used to treat migraine.
LIMITATIONS
€Rye is susceptible to Ergot, causing ergotism, the St Anthonys FireŽ of the
Middle Ages„gangrene, abortion, hallucinations and other unpleasant
symptoms.
€Timing of harvest is critical as the seed shatters very readily.
€The plants are intolerant of high temperatures.
€The straw is tough and fibrous and can normally be used only as bedding or
litter.
€The crop takes a long time to grow (long growth periodŽ);
€Expenses are incurred as new seed has to be frequently bought in by farmers,
because rye normally cross-pollinates.
Sorghum
Sorghum bicolor (Syn. S. vulgare)
Milo, Milo Maize (America), Indian Millet, Sorgo (sweet sorghums); 
Sorgo, Sorgho (French); Sorghum (German); Daza, Sorgo {comun} (Spanish); 
Sorgo (Portuguese); Ovasa, Omassambala (Angola); Mtama (East Africa); 
Guinea Corn (West Africa); Mechella (Tigrinha, Ethiopia/Eritrea), Mashella
(Amharic, Ethiopia), Mishinga (Oromifa, Ethiopia); Durra (Sudan); Kaffir Corn
(South Africa); Jola, Jawa, Jowar, Cholam, Great Millet (India); Bajra (Pashtu);
Kaoliang (China)
Sorghum is the fifth most widely grown cereal crop in the world, after wheat, rice,
maize and barley. The FAO estimate for global production in 2004 was 59 million
MT. Sorg hum plants prefer warm growing conditions, and the crop is mainly
cultivated between about 40° North and South of the equator.



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136TONY WINCH
 Hybrid sorghums are widely grown in South Asia and Latin America, and also
have good yield potential in Africa. Yields of these hybrids often achieve more than
50% of the control varieties, but the production of hybrid seed is still not as well
developed as other crops such as maize. 
 Some varieties are available which have some resistance to the parasitic Striga
weed, as well as some lines of sorghum which display some tolerance to soil acidity
and aluminium toxicity.
 There are more than 30 different species of sorghum, and several thousand
varieties, and there is some disagreement between botanists about their
classification. Nevertheless, there are roughly speaking five main types; in between
these five types there are many examples of plants with botanical characteristics of
two or more types„not surprising considering that man has cultivated and selected
sorghums for thousands of years, and they also cross-pollinate readily. 
 The five main types of sorghum are listed below:
1. Grain Sorghums:
Mainly grown for their large, relatively palatable seed. There are many different
examples: 
  Milo„S. subglabrescens. Compact, goose-necked heads; many tillers.
  Kafir Corn„S. caffrorum. Small, cylindrical heads.
  Hegari„similar to Kafir, but thinner stems and more leaves.
  Feterita„S. caudatum. Large white seed, which shatters readily.
Durra„S. durra. Bearded, fuzzy heads. Seed normally white. Grown mainly in
the Sudan, North Africa and India.
  Guinea Corn„S. guineense. Grown in West Africa.
  Shallu„S. roxburghii. Grown in India.
  Kaoliang„S. nervosum. Grown in China and the Far East.
Hybrids„the yield potential of sorghum has been doubled by the development of
hybrids, which was made possible initially by the discovery 50 years ago of two
plants which were male sterile.
2. Sorgos:
These are the so-called sweetŽ or amber sorghums, which are mainly grown for
animal food, hay and silage and for the production of syrup. The fresh, young stems
are often eaten by humans.
3. Grass Sorghums:
These are also grown for animal fodder. The most well known is Sudan Grass (var.
sudanensis).
4. Broomcorn (Broom sorghum):
Sorghum dochna (Syn. S. bicolor var. technicum). Grown for their stiff stems and
heads suitable for making brooms and brushes. BroomcornŽ is also a frequently
used name for Common, or Proso, Millet (Panicum miliaceum).
5. Special purpose sorghums:
 Examples include Pop Sorghum (similar to Popcorn), and varieties developed for the
manufacture of starch.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK137
 With this enormous range of plant types it may be misleading to make generalised
statements about sorghumŽ. The information given below is only a brief guide and
further reading is needed to fully understand the complexity of this crop.
 Nevertheless there are some characteristics of the sorghums that are almost
always found in common, listed below:
€Drought resistance: sorghum has been called the camel of the plant
kingdomŽ, though in fact most millets are more drought resistant than most
sorghums. Sorghum needs much less water than maize, though young maize
plants can be equally drought resistant as sorghum plants of the same age. The
plant has certain features that enable it to survive drought, such as its ability to
remain dormant during dry periods, and then recover.
€Adaptability: sorghums can be found which will grow on a wide range of soils
and rainfall.
€Intolerance of cold: virtually all of the sorghums are killed by frost.
€Preparation for food: sorghum grain is prepared for eating in many ways like
maize, which it closely resembles both botanically and nutritionally.
€Damage by birds: in 1967 it was estimated that the loss of food that year alone
in the Sudan area caused by the Weaver bird (Quelea spp.) was 4 million MT.
These birds, and others, can make devastating attacks on sorghum, unlike
maize, which protects its seed inside a cob.
€Pollination: sorghum is mainly self-pollinated, although about 6% cross-
pollination can occur, depending on the variety, growing conditions and
compactness of the inflorescence.
PLANTING
Soil: sorghum plants adapt to a wide range of soils; deep, fertile sandy loams are
best, with pH 5…8.5. Tolerates slightly saline and alkaline soils; intermediate
tolerance to acid soils. Better adapted to heavy soils than pearl (bulrush) millet. 
Poor response to fertiliser in dry conditions, where it is usually water and not
nutrients which is the main limiting factor to plant growth. In less arid regions
fertiliser usually gives an economic response, Nitrogen being the most beneficial.
Sensitive to iron deficiency, symptomised by chlorosis.
Seed rate: not very critical, as sorghum plants compensate quite well by producing
fewer or more tillers, and so adjusting to different plant populations. A rough and
ready rule of thumb is to plant 1 kg/ha for every 70 kg/ha of the normalŽ yield
expected. 
 Average figures are 2…5 kg/ha in dry conditions, 5…10 kg/ha in medium moisture
conditions and 10…20 kg/ha in moist or irrigated soil. There are between about
25,000 and 70,000 seeds per kg. 
Spacing: the seed is very often broadcast, but when planted in rows these are about
60-90 cm apart, with 20…60 cm between plants.
Depth: 2…3 cm in moist soil, 4…5 cm in dry soil.



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138TONY WINCH
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: most of the sorghums are short-day plants, but there is wide variation in
varietal response to photoperiodism (discussed in 1Ej, page 42).
Growth period: a vast range, from between about 70 and 220 days. Sometimes the
plants are cut down and harvested, then allowed to grow back up again as a ratoon
crop. This itself is then harvested, producing a second, normally smaller, crop of
grain and/or grazing.
Rainfall: some sorghum varieties are almost as drought resistant as pearl (bulrush)
millet. The optimum is 350…800 mm a year, while some early, short varieties can
produce a yield with no rain at all during the growth period if seed or seedlings are
planted into a cool, moist, retentive soil. One way to grow sorghum during the dry
season is to propagate seedlings in nurseries and transplant them into moist soil at
the end of the rainy season. In other situations, tall, late maturing varieties that are
growing in light soils may need 1000 mm or more during the growth period.
Temperature: 30°C is ideal for growth. Most sorghums are killed by frost. For
°
planting, the soil should be at least 17C at sunrise.
Rotation: sorghum is often intercropped, normally with legumes such as different
types of beans, pigeon peas, etc. If it is monocropped, or rotated with maize or
another Graminae/Poaceae species, Striga weed (page 89) may become a big
problem.
Irrigation: sorghum responds well to irrigation, and can be grown under full
irrigation without any rain. If only irrigated once, the best time is just before heading
starts.
Pests: The small red-billed weaver or black-faced dioch (3 races of Quelea quelea)
and other birds can cause devastating damage, so bad that sometimes farmers
have to abandon sorghum and grow other crops. 
Bird resistant varieties such as Seredo/ Sereno (an improved Serena) are avail-
able, but they have a high tannin content and so tend to be unequally unpalatable
to people and animals as to birds.
… Stalk Borer: may damage plants so much that whole seedheads break off, or the
whole plants are killed. Chemical control is not very effective as the larvae are well
protected within the stalk. All infected stalks should be destroyed.
… Corn Worms: young larvae eat the leaves and developing seed head. Not
normally serious.
… Sorghum Midge: eggs are laid in the flower, and the larvae feed on developing
seed. There are some resistant varieties available.
… Sorghum Flies: there are several species. The shoot fly is about half the size of a
housefly; eggs are laid on young leaves, larvae eat the growing point. Not always a
problem, as young plants can recover with new tillers, though these also may be
attacked, resulting in bushy, stunted plants with few or no heads.
… Storage Pests: Rice Weevil is the worst, often found together with the Flour
Beetle and the Grain Moth. Fumigation is often necessary. Seed should be stored at
less than 10% moisture, either as threshed grain in dry areas, or in the headŽ in
more humid areas.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK139
Diseases: these tend to be more serious in warmer, more humid conditions:
 Anthracnose is very common. Stems and leaves become reddish or purple, the
leaves dry up and stems may rot and fall over.
 Leaf Blight, caused by Helminthosporium, attacks both seedlings and mature
plants.
 Covered Smut. The developing seed is replaced by grey sacs containing black
spores. It is seed-borne, and can be very damaging, though it can be controlled with
seed dressings.
 Loose Smut is less damaging than covered smut. Black spores are released into
the air. This smut can also be controlled with seed dressings.
 Head Smut. The entire head becomes a mass of brown spores, but normally only
a few heads are infected. Control: as the spores are carried over in the soil, seed
dressing is not effective. All infected heads should be destroyed, by burning.
YIELD
Average yields of sorghum vary widely, from between 300 and 3000 kg/ha for
rainfed crops, to 2…6 MT/ha for irrigated crops. According to FAO the average for
the years 1988/90 was 0.4…3.4 MT/ha, for the bottom 10% and top 10% of producer
countries respectively. 
 These figures are predicted to rise to 0.6…3.7 MT/ha by the year 2010.
 The FAO estimated the average global yield for the year 2004 was 1.4 MT/ha,
varying from the highest in Egypt (5.9 MT/ha) to the lowest in Eritrea (272 kg/ha).
 Hybrid varieties in ideal conditions can yield 10 MT/ha plus.
 In addition to this yield of seed or grain, the stalks are also often eaten by man
and animals, and are also used as construction material. This fact means that in some
circumstances lower yielding but very tall varieties may be just as useful as higher
yielding dwarf varieties.
UTILISATION
€Sorghum is the staple food in many of the drier parts of Africa, India and China.
The grain is mainly used in different types of leavened and unleavened flat
bread (kisra in Sudan), in porridge (ugali, kali, cuscur, etc.) or low quality
enjera. The entire grain can be boiled in soup or water, or made into beer
(soowa,talla, pombe, etc). Sorghum flour is often added to bulk up other more
valuable flours such as wheat, maize & teff.
€Sorgos are used for syrup manufacture, and their stems are also eaten by
humans when they are young and fresh (the stems, not the humans).
€As animal food (Žstover). Sometimes the grain is fed, though this is a rare luxury
in poor countries; more commonly it is the stems and dry leaves from the
harvested plants that are fed to animals. If animals graze a harvested, ratooning
sorghum field there is a possibility that the young plants may contain toxic
levels of HCN (hydrocyanic, or prussic, acid).
€The stems of taller, more vigorous varieties are used for building material, and
for making baskets, for cooking fuel and for heating.



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140TONY WINCH
LIMITATIONS
€Sorghum grain is susceptible to bird damage, and unfortunately the so-called
bird resistantŽ varieties such as Seredo (Sereno) are less palatable due to their
high tannin (polyphenol) content, and so are not popular with farmers or their
families. As a result, their commercial value is lower than other sorghum
varieties.
€The crop is susceptible to infestation by Striga weed (1L, pages 89…90).
€The crop is also susceptible to insect damage, especially shoot-fly, stem borer
and midges.
€Many varieties are slow to mature (though this may have its own advantages).
€The grain is generally less palatable than maize, and as a result sorghum seed is
often less in demand than maize seed (ie quality rated more highly than
quantity).
Teff
Eragrostis tef (formerly classified as Eragrostis abyssinica or Poa abyssinica)
Lovegrass, Toff, (Warm-season) Annual Bunch Grass, Ethiopian Millet
Tafi (Oromigna), Taf (Tigrigna)„Ethiopia
Teff, teff millet, or tefŽ, is the most important grain crop in Ethiopia, where about 
2 million hectares are cultivated annually. Ethiopia is the only country in which it is
widely grown as a grain crop apart from a few small areas in Kenya. 
 Virtually all of the teff cultivated as a cereal is made into the Ethiopian national
food enjera. Often considered by Europeans to be famine foodŽ (céréale de
disette), teff is in fact a luxury item, often associated with more affluent families,
while others have to make do with sorghum or millet. White seed is especially
highly valued.
 In South Africa, Kenya and Australia teff is grown as a very palatable hay crop,
and in India it is grown as a green fodder.
 Teff is an annual grass, 40…120 cm tall, with very small seed (2500…3000 per
gram), easily lost (Teffa means lostŽ in Amharic). It is in the genus Eragrostis, tribe
Festuceae.
 There are two main types, differentiated by their seed colour:
White Teff (TsadaŽ)„much more highly valued than brown/red teff, and suitable
for deeper more fertile soils usually found below 2500 m ASL. Growth period is
about 90…120 days.
Brown or Red Teff„suitable for less fertile, shallow soils. Less valuable seed, but
considered to produce better animal fodder than white teff. The growth period is
normally shorter than white teff, about 60…100 days.
 The two types are often grown together in the same field, although there is a
financial incentive for farmers to keep the more valuable white seeded types
separate from the brown. Often the brown is for home consumption and the white is
for sale.
 Teff is a reliable crop that can generally be depended upon to produce at least
some yield even when it is grown in poor conditions. However, even in good
growing conditions teff does not normally yield as much as other cereal crops.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK141
 There is virtually no gluten in the grain, so teff cannot be made into leavened
bread. The pancake-like enjera is made by fermenting the flour and water mix for a
day or two, then baking the dough briefly in covered trays. Enjera is enriched with
vitamins by the yeast which arises from the short fermentation of the dough.
 The seed has a good balance of essential amino acids except lysine ,it is very rich
in calcium (110 mg/100 g of edible portion) and iron (c. 90 mg/100 g), and contains
about 9% protein. The high iron intake of people who eat a lot of teff is often
associated with their resistance to hookworm anaemia.
 Another great advantage of teff is that its seed can be stored for several years
without losing much germination/viability if it is kept dry and well protected.
PLANTING
Soil: teff adapts to a wide range of soils, including badly water logged ones, but grows
best on lighter, sandy soils. It is rarely fertilised, though Nitrogen and/or Phosphate
will normally produce an economic response. Fertiliser should be applied at sowing
time, but it can be top-dressed if this is not possible. Approximate applications are
130 kg/ha of DAP, plus about 35 kg/ha Urea on light soils and twice this amount on
black soils. Several combinations of other N/P fertilisers can also be used.
Seed rate: 10…15 kg/ha should be enough, because the plants can produce many
tillers and in this way compensate for low plant populations. In practice, rates of
25  55 k…g/ha are more usual. The seed rate is lower for soils that have higher fertility
and water retention.
Seed viability: teff can be stored much longer than other cereals, and even in basic
traditional stores the seed can remain viable for at least two years.
Depth: very shallow, 20 mm max. Teff seed is normally broadcast by hand then
covered gently by using light branches or by driving animals over the seeded area.
Timing: depends on soil type, altitude, moisture, variety, etc but in general the later
(ie longer growing season) varieties are planted from May to early August, and the
earlier varieties in August and early September.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: short-day; moderately sensitive.
Growth period: 90…120 days for white seed varieties, 60…100 days for brown/red
varieties.
Rainfall: teff can survive with only 200…300 mm during its growing period if the
soil is retentive and the temperatures are not too high. Some very fast growing
varieties can produce some yield with only 250 mm.
Thus although it is more drought resistant than other cereals it is still vulnerable to
severe drought due to its rather shallow root system. The plants do not thrive when
rainfall is more than about 2500 mm.
Rotation: teff can be useful as a catch crop (1Gc), for example if a main crop fails.
In theory it is preferable to rotate teff with legumes and/or oilseeds, but in practice
many soils can and do produce teff continuously for many years. A typical 4 year
rotation is: pulse/ teff/teff (or other cereal) /pulse.



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142TONY WINCH
Altitude: teff can grow from sea level up to about 2800 metres, but 1800…2200 m is
optimum. Different varieties are adapted to grow at different altitudes. Normally
only brown seeded varieties are grown above about 2500 m.
Pests: not normally a serious problem, although armyworms, locusts, grasshoppers
and root-knot eelworms can cause some damage. The Welo (Wollo) bush-cricket
(Decticoides brevipennis or DegezaŽ) can cause great damage. Central shootfly
(Hylemya arambourgi) is controlled with seed dressings. Red tefworm (Mentaxya
ignicollis) is controlled with various sprays.
Diseases: Rust (WagŽ) is common and can be a problem, especially in humid
conditions; late planted crops normally avoid rust, but run the danger of not having
enough rainfall to grow well. Head Smudge (Helminthosporiummiyakei, AramoŽ)
can also be a problem in humid conditions; it is seed-borne, so infected crops should
not be used for seed. Damping-off (Drechslera poae) can be severe, especially with
high seed rates and/or early planting.
Other diseases include: Stinking Smut, which infects the whole seed head, 
Leaf Blight (Septoria), Phoma Leafspot (on old leaves), 
Soot (Alternaria cladosporium and Coniosporium species) and Anthracnose.
YIELD
Anything from almost no yield up to 2…3 MT/ha is normal; 1 MT/ha is considered to
be a good crop. 
 Teff is reliable; although other crops will provide more food in good years, teff
will often produce at least something to eat in low rainfall years when other crops,
even millet, produce nothing.
UTILISATION
€Teff is used almost exclusively for making enjera in Ethiopia, and by
Ethiopians living abroad. The grain has very high levels of iron (80…90 mg/
100 g) and calcium (100…110 mg/100 g), and about 9% protein. It is normally
eaten with wot, a sauce made of meat and/or pulses; the wot supplements the
lysine deficit in teff. 
€The high fiber content of the grain means that it important in preventing
diabetes and assisting with blood sugar control. An additional advantage is
that teff is almost always grown and stored under organic conditions.
€The plant is a grass (Poaceae alt. Graminae), and can be used to make very
palatable and highly valued hay for livestock fodder in countries such as
Ethiopia, South Africa, Kenya and Australia. 
€The straw after is a very highly valued animal food; it can also be used as
reinforcement for mud plastering of tukuls & grain stores (goteras).
€In India the young green plants are often eaten by animals; sometimes the cut
plants are used as a mulch.
€The grain is sometimes used to make alcoholic drinks (tela and katikala).
€Teff may also have applications for persons with Celiac Disease (gluten in-
tolerance). Some gluten free food crops include maize, rice, buckwheat,
arrowroot, chickpeas, quinoa, tapioca and potatoes.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK143
LIMITATIONS (Teff)
€Teff seed is very small which makes it a very labour intensive crop. Every step,
from land preparation, weeding and thinning, harvesting, threshing to the final
cleaning and cooking is laborious. The seedbed should be fine, well prepared
and free of weeds; the land is ploughed at least twice - up to an astonishing five
times, a herculean task.
€The supply of well adapted, improved varieties is limited. Seed supply in
general is not always regular, and the varieties most useful for certain areas are
not always available.
€Brown and white seed types are often grown together which can cause problems
with crops maturing unevenly and with adapting to soil type and altitude.
€Yields of teff grain are often low, though this is often more than compensated
by high prices in comparison with other cereals.
Wheat
Triticum aestivum (Syn. T. sativum, T. vulgare)
Bread Wheat, Common Wheat; Blé, Froment (France); Weizen (Germany);
Trigo (Spanish & Portuguese); Gehun,Genhu (Hindi); Qamr (Arabic); Sernay,
Shinray (Tigrinha, Ethiopia/Eritrea); Ajja/Addja* {T. durum}, Sinday (Amharic,
Ethiopia), Qamaadii (Oromifa, Ethiopia); Otiliko (Angola); Ghaanum (Pashtu);
Gandum/Gandom (Dari), Garma (Winter Wheat, in Dari)
*Also sometimes used as the word for oats.
Wheat is one of the three most important cereals in the world, in terms of both the
area grown and production, together with rice and maize. According to the FAO,
global production in 2004 was 627 million MT, grown mainly in China, Russia,
USA, India, France, Canada, Australia, Turkey, Pakistan and Argentina.
 Wheat was one of the earliest food crops domesticated, around 8000 BC, in the
Fertile Crescent of southwest Asia, together with barley and some of the legumes.
Einkorn (T. monococcum) and Emmer (T. dicoccum) were the early precursors of
todays wheats.
 Wheat is highly adaptable, and different varieties of wheat are adapted to grow at
altitudes from sea level to 3500 m and between latitudes 60° North and South; it is
grown in virtually every climatic zone except the lowland tropics.
 Like the other true cereals wheat is an annual grass, a member of the Poaceae
(Graminae) family, which grows about 30…120 cm tall. Plants can compensate for
thinly sown crops by producing many tillers. 
 The panicle, or seed head, is formed into a compound spike which may be
awned, or bearded, like barley, or, more commonly, without awns. It is mainly self-
pollinated.



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144TONY WINCH
 There are two types of wheat grain, hard and soft, & two colours, red and white:
Hard grain varieties (which have a vitreous endosperm) are normally grown in
drier areas, have a protein content of about 11…15% (strongŽ) and are used mainly
for bread.
Soft grain varieties (which have a mealy endosperm) are normally grown in more
humid areas, have a lower protein content of about 8…10% (weak), and are used
mainly for cakes, biscuits, pastry, etc.
Wheat grain can be classed into six groups:
€ Hard, red winter wheat
€ Hard, red spring wheat
€ Soft, red winter wheat(1)
€ White wheat(2)
€ Durum (macaroni) wheat(3)
€ Red durum wheat
(1)
Normally grown in humid regions. (2)
Soft grain varieties which can grow with very little rainfall.
Triticum durum (formerly classified as T. turgidum var. durum).(3)
The grain is long and pointed, very hard and more amber in colour than red or white.
It has a very high gluten content, but this does not retain carbon dioxide to the same
extent as bread wheat gluten. The protein content is about 13%, and there are about
17…35,000 seeds per kg. Durum wheat is mainly used for macaroni, pasta, spaghetti,
noodles, etc. Many types of Durum are grown in Ethiopia, mainly on the highland
vertisols between 1800 and 2800 m asl. There are no fully winter hardy varieties of
Durum wheat. 
There are 3 main types of Triticum aestivum wheat, and many thousands of named
varieties:
1. Spring Wheat
Mainly grown either in very cold regions where if wheat were to be planted in the
autumn it would not survive the winter, or in warmer regions on the occasions when
for one reason or another winter wheats cannot be grown. As their name implies
they are normally planted in the spring, ideally not until the soil temperature has
reached about 4°C; they are however also planted at other seasons, normally at the
start of the rainy season. 
 Spring wheats need about 100 frost-free days, and do not need to be vernalised
by low temperatures (1Fg, page 59) in order to flower. Flowering is induced when
the day length becomes long enough.
2. Winter Wheat
Planted in the autumn in temperate regions. They need to be vernalised, sometimes
for weeks at a time, in order for the plants to pass from the vegetative stage to the
reproductive stage. In temperate regions, about 75% of all wheat grown is winter
wheat.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK145
3. Intermediate (Alternate or Facultative) Wheat
They differ from the winter wheats in that they do not need low temperatures in
order to flower. They differ from spring wheats in that they do not normally develop
during the short, cold winter days. Some varieties will only grow well when sown in
the autumn.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed. Seed size varies from about 20,000 and 53,000 seeds per kg.
Germination: Optimum temperature is 20…28°°C, minimum 2…4 C. Seedlings
normally emerge in 5…6 days. Dormancy is short, like other cereals, and is rarely a
problem.
Soil: Wheat grows best in fertile, medium-heavy textured soils that are well drained
and have a good lime content. The plants are prone to lodging; for this reason, and
due to the declining value of wheat straw, plant breeders tend to produce dwarf Ž
(60…90 cm tall) or semi-dwarfŽ (90…120 cm tall) types.
Fertiliser: This is a large and complicated subject. Very basically, in general
Nitrogen should be applied at planting time in soils known to be deficient in this
element, and an additional top dressing applied if adequate rainfall is likely and if
the crop appears to be in need. Older, taller varieties can only utilise about 60 kg/ha
of Nitrogen; modern, shorter varieties can utilise almost three times this amount.
Applications of P and K should be based on soil tests. Winter wheat in the UK
receives on average 200:75:120 NPK.
Seed rate: 25…250 kg/ha, average about 65 kg/ha. Not very critical as wheat plants
compensate well, producing either more or less tillers according to the plant
population. Rules of thumb: lower seed rates in low rainfall regions, in clean, weed-
free fields, when planted early and for autumn sown winter wheats; higher seed rates
in higher rainfall regions, in weedy fields, when planted later in the season and for
spring wheats.
Seed spacing: a controversial subject. 15…20 cm between rows, to give a plant
2
population of 200…400 plants/m. In good growing conditions, and when sown early,
wheat plants compensate for low plant populations by producing many tillers, so
2
150…200 plants/m may be enough. In poor growing conditions widely spaced
plants are easily overcome by weeds.
Depth: 2.5…5 cm is normal. If sown into very dry soil it is often planted 8…10 cm
deep. In theory this is a good idea, to ensure that the seed only germinates after
adequate rainfall, but in practice trials have shown that 6…8 cm is the maximum for
even the driest soils. Very deep sown wheat also produces fewer tillers.
Intercropping: wheat almost always grows better when in pure stand. Nevertheless,
in India for example it is often intercropped with other crops such as barley, linseed,
mung beans and mustard. Intercropping wheat with legumes may be justified in
some soils low in Nitrogen and where fertiliser is unavailable or prohibitively
expensive.
Weeds: wheat does not compete well with weeds, and also it is difficult to hand-pull
or hoe weeds in the growing crop, so where herbicides are not available the seedbed
should be cleared of all weeds and their seed as much as possible.
Rotation: a crop of wheat that is cultivated the season after the crops listed below
may be expected to perform in the following ways:
Sorghum„wheat yields less than when it is in a highly managed wheat monoculture.



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146TONY WINCH
Maize and cowpeas„wheat should do well.
Cotton„wheat performs somewhere between the two above.
Green manure„wheat yields about the same as after a fallow, and green manuring
is not worthwhile in areas with less than about 375 mm rainfall a year.
Sesame and cucurbits„wheat should yield well.
Sorghum and barley„wheat will not normally flourish.
Pulses and oilseeds„wheat will also often not flourish.
In low technology farming systems, wheat should not be grown consecutively on the
same land for more than 3 or 4 years, or even less.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: most wheat species are long-day plants.
Growth period: anywhere between about 95 and 150 days, with a rough average of
130 days. The growth period is extended by about 15 days for every 300 metres
increase in altitude. Sometimes it is possible to grow two wheat crops per year, but
this is dangerous and can lead to a buildup of Rust and other diseases.
Temperature: the minimum for growth is about 34°C, and the optimum is 
2527°C. Varieties have been developed to grow well in a wide range of
temperatures. Wheat can grow in very high temperatures, above 40°C, provided that
the air humidity is not too high.
 At the other extreme, some winter wheats grow in some of the coldest regions.
High temperature may result in low yields of small grain, especially if there are also
hot dry winds.
Rainfall: wheat is generally less tolerant of drought or irregular rainfall than barley,
but can sometimes produce some crop with only 200…500 mm during its growth
period. Most of the important wheat regions of the world have less than 700 mm a
year. In the tropics, irrigation is usually necessary if there is less than 200 mm
rainfall during the growth period.
Altitude: wheat is grown from sea level to about 3500 m above sea level. In the
tropics it is normally grown between 1600 and 3500 m. In Ethiopia, mainly 1800…
2500 m. Many tropical countries attempt to grow more wheat at high altitudes so as
to reduce food imports. At lower altitudes in the tropics there is often too little
rainfall, or it is too hot and humid, which increases the damage caused by diseases.
Pests: 
… Wheat Stem Maggot„mainly in Asia, Europe and America. The maggots
(larvae) are slender, glossy and pale green; they may kill one or more tillers of
young plants. In older plants, the grain is shrivelled and the plants may die
prematurely.
… Aphids„normally attack in the early growth stages and during droughts. Wheat
aphids and the so-called Greenbug damage plants by sucking their sap and, more
seriously, by transmitting virus diseases. Can be controlled with insecticides such as
Parathion.
… Wireworms„these larvae are slender, hard, shiny and slow moving, with 3 pairs
of short legs. They attack germinating grain and also roots and stem below ground,
which usually causes death of the plant. Lindane soil treatment is possible but very
expensive.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK147
… Cutworms„more serious in arid and semi-arid regions. The larvae attack at or
below the soil surface.
… Suni Bug„a yellow-brown stinkbug, which sucks sap from the plant and
developing grain causing a reduction in seed yield and quality. Can be controlled
with Parathion.
… Sawflies„black and yellow flies that look like wasps. Larvae enter stems, which
break and fall over. Control is normally by natural predators, but crop rotations and
efficient ploughing also help.
… Hessian Fly„adults have a dark coloured body about 3 mm long. Red, round
eggs are laid on the upper leaf surfaces. The larvae are initially red, then become
white; they can kill young plants, and cause older plants to lodge. Control is by
using resistant varieties (not resistant to all strains of the fly), by destroying
volunteer wheat plants, and by choosing an appropriate sowing date.
… Grain Moth„very serious in primitive farming systems in the Near East, where it
is called el Doodeh„ the pestŽ. Eggs are laid in the soil in the spring, larvae enter
the soil and wait for good rains, then attack the leaves which turn yellow, killing
many plants. Can be controlled by using heavy machinery to plough deeply and
thoroughly.
… Angoumois Moth„eggs are laid on the wheat ears; larvae enter the developing
grain and reappear as adults in the stored grain.
… Rice Weevil„adults are brown/black weevils about 3 mm long. They do some
damage in the field, but main damage is in stored wheat. They can multiply very
rapidly. Controlled by having clean storage containers and fumigating immediately
they are observed.
… Dusty Brown Beetle„yellow larvae attack roots of seedlings. Control with seed
dressing.
… Shiny Cereal Weevil„bronze coloured weevils which eat irregular patches from
the leaf edges. Most damage is by the larvae, which attack the stem just below the
soil surface. In Northern Europe, the frit fly, leatherjackets and slugs often cause
major damage.
Diseases:
Stem (Black) Rust„Puccinia graminis. Can be very destructive. Red spots,
which become black, on all parts of the plant but mainly the stem. Plants become
yellow. Grain is shrivelled, or sometimes absent. Control is by using resistant
varieties. Some species of Barberry (genus Berberis) are a host for the fungus and
those near wheat fields should be destroyed.
Leaf (Brown) Rust„Puccinia triticina. Worse in humid and semi-humid
regions, but losses are usually less than with Stem (Black) Rust. Orange-brown spots
are mainly on the leaves and are smaller than those of Stem Rust; they also become
black. Control is also by using resistant varieties. Durum wheats are mainly resistant
to Leaf Rust.
Stripe (Yellow) Rust„Puccinia striiformis. Does not develop in hot dry weather.
Small light yellow spots appear on all plant parts, which join together to from
long yellow stripes. Spread by wind „ the spores can travel enormous distances.
Control is also by using resistant varieties.



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148TONY WINCH
S eptoria Leaf Blotch„very similar to Leaf Blight. Brown, speckled areas appear
on the leaves, which then die. Control: crop rotation, destroy volunteer plants and
seed dressings.
 Septoria Glume Blotch„very similar to Leaf Blotch.
 Take-all„especially in wheat monoculture. Plants are yellow and wilted, with pale
and often empty ears. Roots are short and thick, and poorly developed. Stems are
black and shiny just above the soil level - the leaf sheaths must be removed to
observe this. Control by crop rotation, seed dressing and cultural strategies eg
preparation of a firm seedbed helps a little.
 Loose Smut„Ustilago nuda. A mass of black spores appears in place of the seed-
head. Control: use clean seed, either from clean fields or by anaerobic seed treatment.
Covered Smut is often more serious in wheat, and Loose Smut is often more serious
in barley.
 Bunt„Tilletia spp. Worse in drier regions and seasons. Infected plants have smut
balls instead of grain. A sample of infected grain smells of fish. Control is by seed
dressing.
 Pythium Root Rot„especially in moist soils and in wheat monocultures, and
with heavy applications of Nitrogen. Control is by crop rotation, preferably with a
legume.
 Virus Diseases„there are several, such as Wheat Streak Mosaic seen in hard red
wheats; yellow-green stripes appear on the leaves, which die, stunted plants, and
shrivelled grain.
YIELD
According to FAO, the global average yield of wheat in 1988/90 was between 0.8
and 5.1 MT/ha, for the bottom 10% and top 10% of countries respectively. 
 The average projected yields for the top and bottom 10% of countries is
estimated by FAO to be 1.2…6.4 MT/ha by the year 2010. 
 The FAO estimate for the global average yield in 2004 was 2.9 MT/ha, from a
low in Eritrea of 302 kg/ha to a high in Belgium of 8.98 MT/ha.
 Hybrid varieties grown in good conditions can yield around 10 MT/ha.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK149
UTILISATION
€Seed/grain: wheat has become increasingly important in many tropical countries
and has partly replaced other cereals in the diet in many areas. The amount and
quality of gluten is the most important factor for wheat flour. The percentage of
gluten increases with short ripening periods, and decreases with long ones. The
protein content depends (apart from the variety) mainly on environmental
conditions such as day length, temperature, soil moisture and nutrients.
€A small amount of wheat grain is used in industry for the production of starch,
paste, malt, dextrose, gluten, alcohol and other products. Wheat germ oil is
traded to a small extent; it is highly unsaturated and is a rich source of Vitamin E.
€Whole plant: one recent trend in mixed (crop and animal) farming systems is to
cut wholecrop wheat at about 50% moisture and ensile the crop for high energy
animal forage.
€Straw: used for thatching rooves, for fuel and for making baskets. Wheat straw
is a good quality animal food, and also makes good bedding for animals (though
barley straw is preferable).
LIMITATIONS
€Wheat is susceptible to many diseases, which can often rapidly produce new
races and thereby overcome the plants resistance which has been bred into new
varieties by plant breeders.
€Many varieties, especially older and taller ones, tend to lodge in fertile and/or
windy, rainy conditions.
€The plants are intolerant of poorly drained soils.
€Wheat responds to fertiliser applications in various ways, which are
sometimes difficult to predict; the correct usage of fertiliser on wheat often
depends on a farmers ability to predict rainfall. 
€Allergy to gluten in the diet happens with some children and adults. Rye can
also promote adverse reactions to gluten, while oats and barley have a variable,
unproven effect. Maize and rice do not have this problem.



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150TONY WINCH
2B.  LEGUMES
The grain of food legumes„also known as grain legumes, or pulses„is second in
importance only to cereals as a source of human and animal food. The greatest
variety of legumes is found in the tropics and subtropics; in India and some other
countries legumes provide the only high protein component of the normal diet.
 There are more than 18,000 species of legumes, of which about 30 are important
as food crops. Despite the enormous importance of legumes as protein sources, only
soybeans and groundnuts have received much attention from plant breeders or
research workers. 
 Many of the under-exploited crops with potential as human and animal food are
members of the Leguminosae plant family„the Tepary Bean, Mat (Moth) Bean,
Rice Bean, Winged (Four-angled) Bean, Lupin, Camel Thorn, Bambara Groundnut
and Leucaena are just a few of the examples, some of which are described in Section
2G. Under-exploited CropsŽ, pages 266…287.
 The average protein content of legume grain is about 26%, though some have up
to 60%, and pulses have been described as the poor mans meatŽ. Although many
of the legume seeds are deficient in certain essential amino-acids (cystine and
methionine in particular), these are normally present in cereals which are often eaten
together with legumes to form a balanced diet.
 The seed of many legumes is poisonous, containing certain alkaloids that must
be broken down by cooking before they are eaten. If the seed is sprouted, as in
China where the practice is an ancient tradition, not only is this problem averted but
also large quantities of vitamins are released which are not available from the dry
seed. 
 Some of the legumes, such as soybeans, groundnuts and winged bean, not only
have high protein content but are also rich in oil; these crops are the so-called
oilseed legumesŽ.
 The ability of legumes to produce, or fixŽ, Nitrogen in nodules on their roots is
another reason for their major influence on food production. Cowpeas, for example,



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK151
can fix 45 kg/ha of Nitrogen or more in the soil, equivalent to 112 kg/ha of urea or
225 kg/ha of ammonium sulphate. The topic of Nitrogen fixation is discussed in
more detail in Section 2Fe, page 54.
The Camel Thorn Acacia albida (syn. Faidherbia albidia)
Although Acacia albida is not strictly speaking a human food crop, no discussion of
legumes would be complete without mention of this valuable leguminous tree
(Mimosaceae family), the Camel Thorn (also known as Ana Tree, Apple-ring
Acacia, Winter Thorn, Kertor, Grar, Gerbi, Derot, etc). 
 Farmers make use of this drought resistant tree in hot regions such as tropical
and southern Africa, Cyprus, Israel and Lebanon. In West Africa and elsewhere it is
intercropped with sorghum and millet.
 The tree has several attributes which can improve the food production
possibilities in the dry tropics and subtropics, the most interesting feature being that
it tends to lose leaves just as the rainy season begins, with the following advantages:
€animal forage is available towards the end of the dry season, at a time when
other trees and forage plants have few or no leaves;
€a single tree can produce more than 100 kg of 27% protein pods, which fall
from the trees at the hungriest time of year, at the end of the dry season. In an
emergency, the pods can be eaten by humans;
€the leaves shade the soil under the trees and so protect the soil from wind
erosion;
€the leaves, together with manure from the animals grazing underneath, enrich
the soil and so make it more suitable for crop production. Leaf fall is perfectly
timed to provide nutrients when they are most needed;
€during the rainy season, sunlight can reach crops growing under the trees
because there are no leaves.



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152TONY WINCH
Broad Bean (Horse Bean or Field Bean)
Vicia faba (Syn. Faba vulgaris, Faba sativa, Vicia fava)
Fava Bean, Faba Bean, Longpod, Pigeon Bean, Tick Bean, Tic Bean, Windsor Bean; 
Féverole, (Grosse) Fève, Fève de Marais (French); Ackerbohne, Saubohne,
Puffbohne(German); Haricot Caballar, Haricot Común, Haba Común (Spanish);
Bondbona (Sweden); Hestebonne (Norway); Pacae (Peru); Feijão de Cavalo, F. de
Porco, F.Miúdo, F.Forrageiro (Portuguese); Atah-bahari, Abeeatah, Alkwhyee,
Atah-barativeri, Bagila, Bakela, Baldenga, Baldunga (Ethiopia); Gutate (Tigray,
Ethiopia); Foul Masri (Sudan); Boerboon (South Africa); Double Bean, Katjang
Babi, Ontjet (Indonesia); Baakla (Hindi); Boqoli (Dari)
There are several different types of broad bean, with plants exhibiting great variation
in growth period, yield, plant and seed size, colour of seed and utilisation. 
 In essence, there are four different groups of varieties of Vicia faba, although
botanists do not always agree on the taxonomy of the broad/horse/field bean:
€var. faba or major„the broad bean;
€var. equina„the horse bean, or longpodŽ;
€var. minor„the tick (or ticŽ) bean;
€var. paucijuga„ similar to var. minor, grown mainly in Central Asia; it is
largely self-pollinating, unlike the other varieties.
The broad bean is an erect, hardy annual plant, normally 60…180 cm tall, although
some dwarf types are only 30…45 cm tall. It is the most hardy of all the beans, and is
commonly sown in autumn in temperate climates. The plant is easily recognised by
its four-ribbed stem.
 Although the seed has a relatively high protein content of 24…33%, in common
with many of the grain legumes it is deficient in the essential amino-acids methionine
and cystine, especially when the grain is baked. Nevertheless, the beans are a good
source of energy (340 calories per 100 mg), fat (1.5%), carbohydrates (49…57%),
fibre (4.5%), calcium (100 mg), iron (6 mg) and Vitamin A (25…100 I.U.). The seed
is large, with about 1…5,000 seeds per kg.
 Under certain circumstances the seed can also contain toxic substances which
can cause Favism, a disease characterised by haemolytic anaemia, a disorder of the
blood in which the red blood cells break down. This condition is most commonly
found in Mediterranean and North African countries and in the Middle East. It is
also prevalent in China, and 100 million people are thought to be affected around the
world. Favism can sometimes be caught just by inhaling pollen when walking
through a field where the plants are flowering. Susceptibility to favism is inherited
as a sex-linked trait; the disease is especially threatening to children. Symptoms
include pallor, fatigue, breathlessness, nausea, abdominal and back pain, fever and
chills. Jaundice and dark urine may develop in severe cases, and the disease can be
fatal to children. 
 China is a major producer of Vicia faba beans, and it is also planted as a winter
crop on the edge of the tropics, in countries such as Sudan, Ethiopia and Burma, and
at high altitudes in the tropics, such as in Uganda.



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PLANTING
Soil: Vicia faba plants like deep, heavy, well drained and fertile/well manured soil,
with pH 6…7. They do not like acid soil, and saline or waterlogged soil also will not
produce a worthwhile crop. The plants benefit from wood ash and/or comfrey.
Fertiliser: A 4 MT/ha crop of broad beans will remove 45 kg P205 (36 units) and 
50 kg K20 (40 units). The Nitrogen requirement is normally supplied by fixation.
Manganese deficiency is quite common (also with other pulse crops, due to their
high requirement).
Seed rate: very variable, from about 75 kg/ha in Sudan to 200 kg/ha in Egypt, or up
to 300 kg/ha in the UK. Small-seeded types such as tic beans use about 200 kg/ha.
Seed spacing: compromise is required ... broad beans needs a high plant population,
without too many gaps, to attain high yields as it does not compensate very well. But
if the crop is too thick it self-competes, grows tall and lodges, and is also more prone
to diseases. So if the post-winter plant population is too high, the plants should be
actively thinned out, either manually or by deep harrowing. They can, and do, send
2
out several tillersŽ or stemsŽ. The optimum plant density is about 24…35 plants/m
2
(ie plant about 35…40 seeds/ m).
 Approximately 75…100 cm between rows, 15…25 cm between plants, according
to thousand grain weight (TGW) which varies from about 400…1000grams/1000
seeds, depending on variety and growing conditions.
Depth: 7.5…10 cm minimum, but deep enough to avoid birds pecking out the seed
itself. If birds only peck off a new stem, but the seed remains in the ground out of
reach, it will often produce another stem below the broken off area. In the UK winter
beans are often ploughed in, to a depth of 20 cm, and 15 cm for spring sown crops to
avoid this problem (with rooks especially).
Inoculation: recommended for certain situations, especially if grown for the first
time or if previous broad bean crop roots did not have active, pink nodules.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Propagation: by seed. Most varieties are cross-pollinated. Bees are very fond of the
flowers.
Growth period: 90…220 days, depending on variety and climatic conditions.
Temperature: they are the hardiest of all the beans. In temperate regions, both
autumn-sown, frost-tolerant winterŽ varieties and spring-sown varieties are grown. 
°
18…27C is optimum. Higher temperatures can cause the flowers to drop off and
failure of seed to set. In the humid tropics the plants often fail to produce any seed.
Intercropping: broad beans are tall plants which make an excellent nurse crop for
smaller crops such as lettuce, haricot beans or soybeans. They can be sown in rows
1.5 … 2 m wide early in the spring, with rows of more delicate plants sown later
between the guard rows of broad beans.
Rainfall: the least drought resistant of all the grain legumes, they need about
650  1000 m…m.
Altitude: in Ethiopia they are mainly grown between 1800 and 3000 m, especially
in the so-called cereal…pulse zoneŽ between 2000 and 2500 m.



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154TONY WINCH
Rotation: broad beans can be a useful break crop between cereal crops, but only
once every five years, to avoid build-up of Stem Rot (Sclerotinia) (see DiseasesŽ,
below). 
Pests:
… Black Bean Aphid (Blackfly) (Aphis fabae)„these can devastate crops, by
penetrating the plant tissue, transmitting virus diseases and encouraging fungus
diseases. The aphids often congregate at the tops of stems, so with smaller plots of
beans these can be cut off and destroyed. Pyrethrum effectively controls aphids but
should only be sprayed at night to avoid killing bees, which habitually visit the bean
flowers.
The Pea Aphid and Vetch Aphid also transmit virus diseases.
… Pea and Bean Weevil„the soil coloured adults live in the soil in the day and feed
on the leaves at night, but it is the larvae which do the damage by feeding on the root
nodules. Deterred by applying lime or soot on the dew soaked plants, or by spraying
nicotine or quassia (a natural insecticide) on the plants and surrounding ground.
Diseases:
Chocolate Spot„the most serious disease, especially on young plants. Fungicides
such as Bravo, MBC, Ronilan and Rovral, are all mainly contact/protectant
chemicals and must be applied before the fungus gains entry to the leaf or stem.
Once a leaf is infected, spraying has little or no effect. Some control by removing all
the haulm from previous crops, deep ploughing and correcting any potassium
deficiency in the soil with appropriate fertilisers or wood ash. Spring sown crops
normally suffer less than autumn sown ones.
Downy Mildew seems to be increasing in significance. Mainly spread by wind-
borne spores. The youngest leaves of the plant are the first to be attacked. Apply a
foliar spray of metalaxyl plus chlorothalonil (Ridomil + Bravo) if the disease is
spreading in the crop during flowering. A repeat spray 10…14 days later may be
necessary if the disease pressure remains high. The disease occurs mainly in warm
damp sheltered sites.
Leaf Spot (Ascochyta)„mainly a problem of winter-sown beans , and worse in hot
and humid conditions, but rarely causes big yield loss. The disease is seed-borne so
it is controlled with clean or dressed seed. No effective fungicide available. Destroy
all volunteer beans in nearby fields before the new crop emerges.
… Bean Mildew„spray with Bordeaux mixture.
… Root Rots„occur mainly in the tropics and subtropics. Control with seed dressing
eg Captan (NB Captan is very highly toxic to fish and most aquatic invertebrates).
… Powdery Mildews„can be very damaging, in Sudan for example. Spraying the
crop two or three times with lime sulphur gives some control.
… Broad Bean Rust„a major problem in countries such as Peru and Egypt.
However in northern Europe rust normally appears at the end of the season and is
often welcomed as an aid to desiccating the crop prior to harvest.
… Stem Rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum)„although not common, beans may develop
this disease. Sclerotia develop in the soil, and produce spores that infect bean stems
(also linseed, oilseed rape and field peas). New sclerotia develop here and interfere
with the plants water conduits, so that all plant parts above the infection die of thirstŽ.
… Virus Diseases„Mosaic, Leaf Roll and others. Transmitted by aphids.



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YIELD
Highly variable, according to variety, climate, cultural practice, etc. The UK average
is about 3 MT/ha. 7 or 8 MT/ha is feasible, with good conditions, while Argentina
often produces record yields of 9 MT/ha.
 The fresh, green pods that are eaten as a vegetable yield about 12 MT/ha.
UTILISATION
€Normally it is the dry mature beans of Vicia faba which are eaten. In the Middle
East they are baked first, to produce Ful midamisŽ. In Ethiopia they are ground
into porridge, and in India they are sometimes roasted and eaten like groundnuts.
The beans are also suitable for sprouting.
€Modern food industries have produced meat and skim-milk substitutes from
broad beans.
€The green immature pods are often used, either boiled as a vegetable, canned or
frozen. The haulm can be fed to animals.
€The crop is sometimes used for green manure, or silage.
LIMITATIONS
€Yields of Vicia faba are very variable, often as a result of difficulties with
pollination, including flower loss.
€The grain is deficient in sulphur amino acids methionine and cystine.
€Favism, especially serious when food products are fed to children.
€Susceptible to insect and disease attack, both in the field and in storage.
€Relatively high water requirement.
€The seed is quite fragile; germination rates can fall dramatically if it is subjected
to excessive or sudden heat, or to mechanical damage such as rough handling.
Chickpea
Cicer arietinum
Bengal Gram, Calvance pea, Chestnut Bean, Chich (pea), Chick-pea, Dwarf Pea,
Egyptian pea; Garbanzo(a) (Bean), Gram (pea), Indian Gram, Yellow Gram; 
Café Francais, Ceseron, Cicérolé, Ciche, Gairance, Garvance, Gairoutte, Pois Bécu,
P.Blanc, P.Breton, P.Café, P.Chabot, P.Chiche, P.Citron, P.Cornu, P.de Brebis,
P.Gris, P.Pointu, P.Tête de Belier (French); Kichererbse (German); Garbanzo,
Gravancos, Sigró (Spanish); Grão de Bico, Chicaro, Ervanço (Portuguese); Pisello
Cece, Pisello Cornuto, Ceci, Cesari, Cesco, Spizole (Italian); Kikart (Sweden);
Blukkeert (Norway); Erevinthos (Greece); Yellow Gram (East Africa); Hummous,
Kabkaza, Kebkabeik (Sudan); Dwergertjie (South Africa); Attah (Tigray); Shimbra
(Ethiopia,Shumburaa in Oromifa)*; Chola, Chana, Chono, Chota But, Chunna,
Kadale, Sangalu, Adas (India); Nakud, Nokhut (Iran); Nakhud (Pashtu and Dari)



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156TONY WINCH
* AdunguaréŽ is also used, as a general name for beans, especially haricot beans.
 The Chickpea is a bushy annual plant, normally about 45…60 cm tall, often
bluish-green in colour and covered in sticky glandular hairs. The shape and size of
the plants varies very much„some are semi-erect, with few branches, others are
semi-spreading, with many branches. Chickpea flowers are small and either white or
reddish.
 There are four separate races and nine separate sub-races of the genus Cicer. A
second species, the littleleaf chickpea Cicer microphyllum is a shrubby perennial
that grows above about 2500m in the Himalayan area; the seed and young shoots
can be eaten. 
 They are usually grown on a field scale, for their highly nutritious seed (c. 20%
protein, 50…60% carbohydrate and c. 5% oils). Small seeded varieties are normally
made into dhal or flour for poppadoms; larger seeded varieties are often roasted and
eaten whole, or mashed with olive oil, lemon juice and sesame to make hummus.
 The seeds are either white, yellow, red, brown or nearly black, and have a
characteristic beakŽ. There are two main seed types: kabuli (European or garbanzo),
with large beige coloured seed and lower fibre content and desi (or Asian), with
coloured, small seed, angular and fibrous, mainly grown on the Indian subcontinent.
 In global terms, chickpeas are one of the most important of the grain legumes;
FAO estimated that 8.6 million MT were produced in 2004. They are normally
cultivated in hot, dry climates from southern Europe and North Africa to China, and
especially in India. They are also widely grown, at high altitudes, in Mexico. The
major producers are India, Pakistan, Mexico and Ethiopia.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed. Pollination is mainly by bees, resulting in very occasional
cross-pollination (no more than about 1%).
Soil: chickpeas tolerate a wide range of soil types, if they are not waterlogged.
Sandy soil is preferred. Optimum pH is 7…9, chickpeas are classified as sensitiveŽ
to acidity and moderately tolerantŽ of salinity.
Seed rate: very variable, from about 30 kg/ha in parts of India, up to 120 kg/ha in
Greece. Averages are about 100 kg/ha for larger seeded varieties, and 35 kg/ha for
smaller seeded varieties. Average weight of 100 seeds varies from 13 to 83g
depending on the type and variety.
Seed spacing: in southeast Asia, 10…30 cm between plants and 25…30 cm between
rows; in Mexico, 10…15 cm between plants, up to 1.4m between rows.
Depth: 5…10 cm
Intercropping: sometimes happens, usually with a cereal such as wheat or barley.
Inoculation: in ideal circumstances inoculation of the seed has been shown to
increase yields by between 20 and 62%.
Viability: some varieties can remain viable for 2 or 3 years, while others„often the
white seeded types„lose viability after a year or less.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: long photoperiods (short nights) of 16 hours or more favour high yields.
In general, chickpeas are moderately sensitive to photoperiod; long days tend to 



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK157
shorten the vegetative stage, but short days do not prevent flowering. Most varieties
are long-day types.
Growth period: most modern varieties mature in 115…125 days; older varieties, 185
days or more.
Temperature: for germination, 15°°C is optimum, 5 C is minimum. For growth, 
18…29°C is optimum though they can tolerate much higher temperatures. Frost
resistance varies according to the variety, ranging from very resistant to very
susceptible.
Rainfall: good resistance to drought, 600…750 mm per year normally being
adequate. Chickpeas do not grow well with more than about 1000mm rainfall per
year.
Altitude: up to 1200 m in Kenya and 2200 m in Ethiopia.
Rotation: often planted following a cereal crop such as wheat, barley, teff or rice.
Pests: insects are not normally a big problem, though the gram caterpillar or gram
pod borer Heliothis armigera {Helicoverpa spp.} can cause problems. There is some
control by using resistant varieties.  Storage insect pests can also be a problem, often
from Bruchid (pulse) beetles, and others.
Diseases: these are also not usually too serious, but the following can appear:
… Ascochyta (Gram) Blight (Mycosphaerella (Ascochyta) rabiei)„seed-borne. The
leaves, stems, pods and seeds become covered with brown lesions. Control: resistant
varieties, disease-free seed, mixed cropping, burn all infected plants.
… Fusarium Wilt„especially in hot weather and acid soil. Control: resistant
varieties. Rust Uromyces ciceris arietini. Leaf Spot (Alternaria sp.), Ascochyta pisi,
Grey Mould (Botrytis cinera), Powdery Mildew (Leviellula taurica), Pythium
debar-yanum, P. ultimum, Dry Root Rot (Rhizoctonia bataticola), R. solani, Foot
Rot (Sclerotium rolfsii), Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Wilt (Verticillium albo-atrum).
… Viruses isolated from chickpea include Alfalfa Mosaic, Bean Yellow Mosaic,
Cucumber Mosaic, Pea Enation Mosaic, Pea Leaf Roll and Pea Streak.
… Deficiency Diseases„if the soil is low in Phosphorus or Manganese the leaves
may turn yellow or brown, with stunted plants which may die.
YIELD
In general, brown seeded chickpea varieties yield more than green seeded ones.
According to the FAO the global average yield in 2004 was 769 kg/ha, varying from
a high of 5.0 MT/ha in China to a low of 346 kg/ha average yield in Kenya.
UTILISATION
€The dry grain is the main product, normally for human consumption (eg falafel).
in some countries such as Mexico chickpeas are mainly used as animal fodder.
€The grain may be eaten when green, eg. when no other green vegetable is available.
€Flour (mealŽ) can be made from the grain, often mixed with cereal flour before
use.
€Hummus is made from ground up and puréed chickpeas, olive oil and lemon juice.
€Chickpeas produce good and tasty sprouts, with a high Vitamin C content.
€The broken grain and residue from dhal production can be used as animal food.
€In Asia the fresh young plant shoots and green pods are eaten as a vegetable.
€The straw after harvest is valuable animal food, containing about 13% crude protein.



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158TONY WINCH
LIMITATIONS
€Chickpea yields are normally rather low, and are very variable.
€The flavour is bland and insipid, sometimes branded as the poor mans foodŽ.
€The grain is deficient in the sulphur containing essential amino-acids and
tryptophan.
€The grain is very susceptible to insect infestation in storage.
Cowpea
Vigna unguiculata and other Vigna sp.
Asparagus Pea or Bean, Black-eye (d) Pea or Bean, Bodi Bean, Catjang, Cowgram,
China Pea or Bean, Crowder, Indian Pea*, Kaffir Pea or Bean, Lubia, Marble
Pea, Southern Pea or Bean, Snake Bean, Tonkin Bean, Yardlong Bean; Bannette,
Dolique de Chine, Haricot à Oeil Noir, Haricot Dolique, Niébé, Pois de Brazil,
P. de Canne, P. Poona, P. Vache (French); Kakjangbohne (V. cylindrica),
Spargelbohne (V. sesquipedalis), Augenbohne (V. unguiculata) (German); Feijao de
Ojo Negro, Caupi, Frijol (Spanish); Feijão Macunde. F. Frade/Fradinho, F.da China,
F.Nhemba (Portuguese); Sebereh**, Lamattarh, Engwoyeh (Tigray); Adonguari,
Digir, Eka-wohe, Degera, Fasolea-dima, Gaisa, Nguno, Nori, Nyoari, Wuch
(Ethiopia); Batong, Kibal, Karkala, Otong, Paayap (Philippines); Acundeh, Ohalé,
Caupí, (Angola); Feijão Brabham, F.deCorda, Ervilha de Vaca (Brazil); Dau 
Den, D. Trang, D.Tua, D.Xa (Vietnam); Enkoole, Enkoore, Imare, Laputu, Liboshi,
Likote, Likotini, Loputa, Omugobe, Osu (Uganda); Lubia Beida, L. Helu, L.
Kordofani, L.Tayiba (Sudan); Nyemba Bean (Zimbabwe); Tonkin Pea, Tua Dam
(Thailand); Lobia (Hindi); Loobia (Pashtu & Dari). 
*More commonly used for Lathyrus sativa, the (Chickling)Vetch or Grass Pea.
**Also used for Lathyrus sativa.
Cowpeas are mainly grown in India and West Africa, and also in the warmer parts of
South and North America, and are found throughout the tropics and subtropics.
 All cowpeas are annuals, but their plant forms vary considerably, from great long
trailing stems several metres long to climbing, bushy and erect forms. Mankind has
grown and selected cowpeas for thousands of years, leading to this extravagant
range of plant characteristics.
 As a result, the classification of cowpeas is confused, and botanists are unable to
agree on a common method. One system which is fairly well recognised is to divide
cowpeas into three distinct subspecies:
1. Vigna unguiculata (Syn. V. cylindrica, V. sinensis var. cylindricus, V. catjang,
Dolichos unguiculatus, D. catjang, Phaseolus cylindricus)„the Catjang
Cowpea, grown mainly in Asia and to some extent in Africa.
2. Vigna sinensis (Syn. Dolichus sinensis)„the Common Cowpea, grown mainly
in Africa.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK159
3. Vigna sesquipedalis (Syn. V. sinensis var. sesquipedalis, Dolichus sesquipedalis) „
the Long Bean, Snake Bean, Asparagus Bean or Pea, Yardlong Bean, Bodi
Bean, Pea Bean, Snake Bean (Australia), Dolique Geánt, etc, grown mainly for its
green pods.
 Cowpeas were probably first domesticated in Ethiopia 5…6000 years ago and to
this day the largest range of different wild and cultivated cowpea types are still
found there. From here it was taken in the earliest days to West Africa (some argue
that in fact the cowpea was first domesticated in West Africa), and to North and
West India, from where it developed various forms as it was selected for its
adaptation to different growing conditions and the food needs of man.
 Cowpeas are now widely distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics,
grown both for dry seed and green pods. They are a valuable protein source (c. 22%)
for subsistence farmers in many semi-arid parts of Africa and Asia. They enrich the
soil by fixing Nitrogen at up to 245 kg per hectare. 
 Cowpeas have enormous potential as a food legume in the semi-arid to sub-
humid tropics, if disease and insect attack can be controlled.
 The vast majority of cowpeas are grown in Africa, and some are also grown in
Asia, Australia, the Caribbean, southern North America and the lowlands and
coastal areas of South and Central America. Global production in 2004 was
estimated by FAO at about 3.9 million MT.
PLANTING
°
Propagation: by seed. Germination is rapid above about 65F. Seed weight is about
60lb/bushel. Can be stored at 12% for short term, but 8…9% is recommended for
longer term, or for warm and/or humid storage conditions.
Soil: a wide range is tolerated if they are well drained. Saline soils are not tolerated.
Optimum pH is 5.5…6.5, though it can tolerate even greater acidity.
Seed rate: for seed, 17…28 kg/ha when monocropped, 22…33 kg/ha when inter-
cropped. For forage, 50…100 kg/ha. 
The number of cowpea seeds per kilogram varies between about 4000 and 10,000.
3000…4000 per pound is normal.
Seed spacing: very variable. Very often 2 or 3 seeds are planted on hills, about 50 cm
apart for early, erect varieties and wider for late or spreading varieties. Cowpeas are
not normally planted in pure stand but are intercropped with cereals or other crops. 
 Since the earliest days man has observed the beneficial effects of growing
cowpeas (and other legumes) intercropped together with sorghum, millets and so on.
Depth: 2…5 cm
Inoculation: this can be worthwhile if well-nodulated cowpeas have not grown
recently (1Fe).



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160TONY WINCH
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: short-day, long-day and day-neutral types exist.
Growth period: 90…240 days for grain is normal, though 60 day varieties are
available, 50…100 days for green pods, depending on the variety and growth
conditions. Most cowpeas are indeterminate (1Ei) so their pods and grain mature
unevenly.
Temperature: ideally the soil should be no less than about 20°C at planting. The
optimum for growth is about 20-35°C. The plants are frost sensitive, and young
plants are weakened below about 10°C.
Rainfall: 600 mm per year is enough for some early, determinate types. High
rainfall or humidity tends to reduce yields due to an increase in fungus diseases;
asparagus beans tolerate high rainfall better than common cowpeas.
Altitude: in East Africa they are grown up to about 1500 m.
Pests: probably the most serious problem with cowpeas, which are attacked by more
than 100 different insect species, such as pod borers (Maruca testulalis), blossom
beetles (Coryna spp.), thrips, root-knot nematodes and a pod-sucking insect
(Acanthomia horrida).
Diseases: also a big problem. The most important are rust, bacterial canker, cowpea
(fusarium) wilt, mildew, charcoal rot, anthracnose and several virus diseases. In
Africa, leaf and pod spot (Ascochyta) is often a problem; although fungicides can be
effective, the best control is by using resistant varieties, crop rotation, and by
destroying all diseased plant material in the field.
YIELD
Although the potential yield of improved varieties of cowpeas with good
management is more than 4 MT/ha, the average grain yield for African subsistence
farmers is about 300…600 kg/ha (though pure stands (monocropping) are rarely
found in subsistence farming systems). 
FAO estimated the global average yield in 2004 was 388 kg/ha, from a high in
Croatia of 4 MT/ha to a low in Niger of 157 kg/ha.
 When grown for hay, 5 MT/ha is an average yield.
UTILISATION
€Cowpeas are an important food legume, especially in Africa; the dried
seed/grain is almost always the part that is eaten. The objective of much of the
current research in Asia and Africa is more towards increasing the utilisation of
cowpeas in the human diet than to improve the agronomy of the crop.
€Cowpea seed is highly nutritious and palatable, containing about 22% protein
(up to 35%), 1.3…2% fat and 60…67% carbohydrate. The energy value is a
respectable 340 calories/100g of edible portion. The proportion of protein,
carbohydrate and Vitamin B varies considerably according to the variety and
origin of the seed. Like most legumes, the amino acid profile complements
cereal grains.
€The green grain, pods or young shoots can be eaten as a vegetable; or the leaves
are boiled, then either eaten or dried and stored for use in the dry season.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK161
€Cowpea haulm is a useful animal food, containing 11…12% protein. When grown
for hay, which is common in southern USA, the protein content is about 18%.
€Cowpea plants can be used as green manure (p. 70) and as a cover crop (p. 63).
€Sometimes used as a shade crop (p. 64), for example to protect other crops from
the sun loving Chinch Bugs (Blissus leucopterus).
LIMITATIONS
€Cowpea yields are normally low, as a result of insect damage, poor management
and the use of unimproved varieties.
€The pods shatter quite readily when mature, losing seed and sometimes causing
problems with volunteer plants in the following crop.
€Harvesting of indeterminate types can be a problem since the pods must be
removed every few days over a period of several weeks.
€Storage losses can be high, often as a result of attack by Bruchid insects.
Field Pea
Pisum sativum (Syn. P.arvense„see below)
English Pea, Garden Pea
Pois des Champs, Pois Fourrager (Fourrages), Pois Gris, Pois Capucin (French);
Erbse, Felderbse, Futtererbse, Ackererbse, Kapuzinererbse (German); Ervilha
(Portuguese); Guisante Gris, G. de Campo, G. Forrajeiro, Arvejas, Bisalto (Spanish);
Basilla (Sudan); Onjolovilha (Angola); Amashaza, Obushaza (Uganda); Atnattarrh
(Tigray); Attarrh, Danguleh (Ethiopia); Ertjie (South Africa); Mar, Matar-mar
(India); Mashung/Moshong (Dari); Polong (Indonesia); Citzaro (Philippines)
Field peas (Pisum sativum var. arvense) are only slightly different from Garden peas
(Pisum sativum var. sativum):
Field Peas Garden Peas
€More hardy €Less hardy
€Small pods and seeds €
Large pods and seeds
€Normally grown for dried seed,  
€Normally grown for green peas
as unsupported plants
(or pods). On sticks or other
€Flowers are normally
supports
reddish/purple; many new
€Flowers are normally white
varieties have white flowers
These two botanical varieties are completely cross-fertile; botanically they are very
similar, and are often regarded as the same variety. So-called garden peasŽ are
often grown on a large scale as a field crop.



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162TONY WINCH
 A third type, Pisum arvense var. abyssinicum, is grown in northern Ethiopia and
Eritrea. It has very sweet seeds, with a black hilum, and very small reddish/purple
flowers.
 All three types are entirely self-pollinated. Varieties with edible pods are known
as Mange Touts or Sugar Peas. Many of the more recent varieties are bred to be
leafless or semi-leafless.
 Peas are nutritionally valuable, the dried seed containing about 25% protein, 1%
fat, and 57% carbohydrate, as well as 337 calories and 100 (10…200) I.U. Vitamin A
potency per 100 mg edible portion.
 There are a very large number of regional types of peas, and a large range of
named varieties, all variously adapted to a wide range of growing conditions. They
are grown in temperate regions throughout the world, and as a cool season crop in
the subtropics and at high altitudes in the tropics. 
 The major producers of dried field peas are China, Russia, India, America and
Zaire.
PLANTING
Soil: peas tolerate a wide range of soil types, provided they are not waterlogged,
though in clays and very sandy soil they do not grow well. The optimum pH is
5.5  6… .5, though some varieties tolerate a pH of 6.9…7.5. 
 In general, but not always, they give an economic response to fertilisers, though
less than most other legumes. Maximum Nitrogen is c.60 kg/ha„nitrogenous
fertilisers may sometimes even reduce yields. In the UK pea crops receive about 
80 kg/ha P and K.
Seed rate: 65…100 kg/ha for smaller seeded varieties, 130…170 kg/ha for larger
seeded ones. 100 seeds weigh about 15…25 g. Seed benefits very much from
fungicide/ insecticide dressings.
Seed spacing: 30…60 cm between rows, 6…18 cm between plants. In trials in India,
the best yields were obtained with 7.5 × 7.5 cm square grids.
Depth: 2.5…6 cm. In light, dry soil they can be planted even deeper.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: 90…160 days for dried seed, 56…84 days for green seed or pods,
depending on variety, climatic conditions and planting date.
Temperature: peas are essentially a cool weather crop. For germination, 4°C
minimum, 37°C maximum. High temperatures stimulate the plant to flower too
early. Frost is tolerated in the vegetative stages, but at flowering can cause heavy
pod loss, and at pod set can cause deformed and discoloured seed.
Rainfall: the optimum is 800…1000 mm per year evenly distributed, with dry
weather at harvest. They can grow with as little as 300 mm per year if the soil is
deep and retentive, as the taproot can reach down more than one metre in search of
water.
Altitude: in the tropics, about 1200 m is the lowest they will survive. In Kenya the
best altitude is between 2100 and 2700 m. In Ethiopia the best altitude is between
1500 and 2200 m with rainfall less than 600 mm, and 2200…2300 m with rainfall
more than 600 mm per year.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK163
Rotation: in general, peas should not be grown on the same land more often than
every 3…5 years, to minimise the increase of soil-borne pests and diseases.
Pests: these can cause big problems, both in the field and in storage:
… Pea Aphid„causes stunting and also transmits more than 20 different virus
diseases. Control: some varieties have some resistance, or spray with organo-
phosphorus insecticides, nicotine sulphate or rotenone.
… Pea Cyst Eelworm„plants are stunted, turn yellow and may die. Control is
difficult, and a crop rotation with a 10…12 year break is the only practical method.
… Pea Weevil„larvae feed on the seed. Control: rotenone dust works well and is
safe, though parathion may also work.
… Pod Borer and Leaf-eating Caterpillar (Lesser Armyworm)„both of these can
cause big problems, and can be controlled with sevin or malathion.
Diseases: these can also cause large losses in yield:
… Powdery Mildew„this is the most widespread and serious. A white dust appears
on the leaves and sometimes on the stems and pods. Control: dust regularly with
sulphur, and crop rotation.
… Ascochyta Blight (Leaf Spot, Pod Spot)„a seed-borne disease which is a
widespread and major problem. Control: use clean seed and/or 3…4 year crop
rotation.
… Pea Wilt„plants are stunted, with yellow leaves. Control: resistant varieties.
… Bacterial Blight„all plant parts above the ground show water-soaked lesions,
which can kill young plants, especially in humid conditions. No known control.
Stem Rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum)„ although not common, field peas may develop
this disease. Sclerotia develop in the soil, and produce spores which infect bean
stems (and linseed, oilseed rape and spring beans). New sclerotia develop here and
interfere with the plants water conduits, so that all plant parts above the infection die
of thirstŽ.
… Virus diseases„there are more than 20 of these, some of which can be controlled
with resistant varieties; failing this, the aphid vectors must be destroyed.
… Deficiency diseases„Molybdenum is essential for nodulation of the roots. 
Manganese deficiency, occurring mainly in alkaline soils, causes the seed centre to
darken (Marsh Spot).
YIELD
The yield of field peas varies enormously:
Dried Peas„2 MT/ha is considered satisfactory; 4…5 MT/ha is common in northern
Europe. Global average yield quoted by FAO for 2004 was 1.9 MT/ha, from a low
of 268 kg/ha in Croatia to a high of 5.8 MT in the Netherlands.
Green Peas„a good average yield of green peas in the pod is 6.5…7 MT/ha, 
and 4.5 MT/ha of shelled green peas.
UTILISATION
€Dried grain (seed)„this is a valuable and nutritious food, which is often
ground into flour or made into soup. There is a huge industry for canning (both
green and dried peas), dehydrating and freezing peas. The grain is sometimes
also used for animal food, when its price is similar to cereals, either whole, split
or as flour. This practice is becoming more common in recent years, with GM



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164TONY WINCH
soybeans being so widespread. Russia and China together produce nearly 80%
of the world production.
€Green, immature peas and pods„these are also very nutritious, though they
rapidly become tough and lose their flavour after harvest due to loss of sugars.
Compared to dried grain they have less protein, fat and carbohydrate. USA and
the UK are the largest producers of green peas.
€Leaves are used as a potherb in Burma and parts of Africa.
€Animal food„the pods and haulm are a valuable animal food, either dried or
ensilaged. When grown for hay, peas are often grown mixed together with a
cereal crop.
LIMITATIONS
€The main problem with peas is their susceptibility to diseases
€The seed/grain can be heavily attacked by insects during storage.
€The crop can only be safely grown on the same land every 3…5 years.
€The food value quickly deteriorates when the grain is stored, processed or
cooked.
€Yields are often rather low.
€The crop can be difficult to harvest.
Groundnut
Arachis hypogaea
Peanut, Mani, Monkeynut, Earth Nut, Goober Pea, Pindar, Valencia/Spanish Peanut;
Arachide (French); Erdnub, Erdnuss (German); Cacahué, Cachuate, Cacahuete,
Maní (Spanish); Amendoim (Portuguese); Jingooba, Olongupa, Olongumba
(Angola); Foul Sudani (Sudan); Foul (Tigray); Ochioloni and Loozii (Ethiopia);
Mungphali (Hindi, Urdu, Pashtu and Dari).
There are two main types of the tropical legume crop groundnut: Bunch and
Spreading (or Runner). The genus Arachis has literally scores of species, all of
which are generally considered to be native to South America, particularly Matto
Grosso State in Brazil. 
 They are annual plants, but can survive as short-lived perennials in frost-free
regions. Despite its various names the fruit is a legume, or pod, and not a true nut.
 After the (normally yellow) flowers are fertilised, almost always by self-
pollination, the stalk which bears the ovary turns down towards the soil surface, and
is then known as a pegŽ or carpophore. The peg enters the soil and the ovary
develops there into a seed pod containing 1…4 seeds (the small Valencia varieties
may have 5). 
 T he nutŽ has formidable nutritional value; weight for weight, it has more
protein, minerals and vitamins than beef liver, more fat than heavy cream and more
calories than sugar.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK165
 The seed contains 35…55% oil, and groundnuts are often classified as an oilseed
crop (like soybean) even though they belong to the Leguminosae family. In fact
groundnuts are mainly cultivated for their oil. The oil is high in oleic acid and fairly
high in linoleic acid, but low in other acids. It is non-dryingŽ ie it remains liquid,
without a surface film, when exposed to air.
Groundnuts are grown in almost all tropical and subtropical countries, up to 45°N
in Asia and Canada, where the summers are hot. The main producers are China
(10  12 m…illion MT pa), India, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, America, Indonesia and Brazil. 
 With an annual global production of about 30 million MT, groundnuts rank in
the top 25 of the worlds food crops.
PLANTING
Soil: should be deep, well drained and sandy to encourage development of the long
tap root, up to 1.5 m long, and to allow the pegs to enter the soil surface. Soils should
be high in phosphate, calcium and sulphur. 
 Groundnuts tolerate a wide range of pH, though they have some preference for
slightly acidic soil„the optimum pH for light, very sandy soils is 5.5, and for sandy
loams is 6.0, up to about 6.5, root nodules often forming even in these acidic
conditions.  
 Fertiliser is very often not applied, although about 50…100 kg/ha of superphos-
phate is normally beneficial. Requirement for phosphate is high„see Rotation,
below.
 The plants survive in high aluminium soils that would be toxic to other food
crops.
Seed rate: 50…80 kg/ha for Bunch types, 35…40 kg/ha for Spreading (Runner) types. 
Minimum viable seeds to be planted per hectare: 80,000 on ridges, 110,000 on the
flat. Depth: 4…5 cm.
Seed spacing: 45…75 cm between rows, 10 cm between plants, either on the flat or
ridges. High plant populations, up to about 250,000 plants per hectare, are needed to
produce high yields.
Inoculation: this is advisable, unless it is known that well nodulated groundnuts,
cowpeas or velvet beans have been recently grown on that land.
Germination: the seed is very fragile and must always be handled carefully. The
seed should be left inside the shell for as long as possible before planting in order to
maintain its viability. Sometimes the whole pod is planted, but germination is then
slower and more uneven. 
 Viability is often good for 3…6 years if the seed is stored dry and cool. Medium
sized seed gives the best results. The seed of some varieties can remain dormant for
up to two years.
Rotation: often best to follow a well fertilised crop such as potatoes, maize or
cotton and apply no fertiliser to the groundnuts, which efficiently uses the residual
fertiliser. 
They should not be planted after tobacco, soybeans or sweet potatoes, to reduce
nematode and stem rot damage. In parts of India groundnuts are rotated with rice.



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166TONY WINCH
GROWTH CONDITIONS (Groundnuts)
Day length: day-neutral.
Growth period: from planting to dry pods, about 120…160 days for slower growing
Runner type varieties, 90…110 days for faster growing erect Bunch varieties. The
plants are ready to harvest when the leaves turn yellow and the insides of the pods
show dark markings. 
 It is important to harvest in a dry spell and at the correct stage, since the nuts,
even on a single plant, do not mature simultaneously. Fresh pod moisture of 30…40%
must be dried to around 8…10% for storage.
Temperature: high temperatures favour high yields, around 15°C average is
needed, and there should be no frost during the growing season.
Rainfall: about 600 mm per year is the minimum, with at least 500 mm during the
growing period. Most varieties are grown where annual precipitation is 1000…1200
mm. Some varieties can produce some yield with only 300 mm per year. In Asia and
elsewhere it is grown under irrigation.
Pests: rarely a problem, though the following insects may cause some damage:
thrips, termites, ants, nematodes, leafhoppers, velvet bean caterpillars, corn
earworms, cutworms & armyworms.
Diseases: at least five diseases can reduce yields:
… Rosette„a viral disease, spread by aphids, where leaves turn yellow, shoots
become distorted and plants are stunted. Control: plant early at high plant densities,
spray aphicides and use resistant varieties.
… Leaf Spot„a fungal disease, causing dark brown or black spots on both sides of
the leaves. Control: plant early, dress/treat seed, destroy infected plants; fungicides
are generally not cost effective.
… Aflatoxins are naturally occurring mycotoxins produced by species of Aspergillus,
notably Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, which can develop rapidly in humid
conditions. They are carcinogenic to animals and humans, affecting mainly the liver.
They are most dangerous with young animals and poultry, and are thought to be the
cause of high rates of liver cancer in parts of Africa and Asia. The only control is to
rapidly dry the seed to a minimum of 10% moisture content.
… Groundnut Blight„plants become wilted, and stems and even the whole plant
may die, especially in humid conditions. Can be controlled with seed dressings.
… Bacterial Wilt„caused by the bacteria Pseudomonas solanacearum.
YIELD
Groundnuts can yield well in the warmer arid and semi-arid regions as well as in its
more traditional homeland of the humid tropics. 
 The global average in 2004 was 1.45 MT/ha, according to FAO statistics. 
The lowest average yield reported was 336 kg/ha in Zambia, and the highest was 
6.7 MT/ha in Israel (Figures are for groundnuts in the shell).



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK167
UTILISATION
€Groundnut oil is used in margarine and cooking oil, and for lubricants; there are
more than 300 by-products, including flour, soap, shaving cream and plastics.
€Whole groundnuts for human consumption, roasted, peanut butter, etc, and for
fattening pigs.
€Seedcake or oilcake, the residue left after the oil has been extracted, contains
about 50% protein and is used for cattle cake, pig and poultry food and fertiliser.
€Hay, about 7% protein, can be valuable if plenty of leaves remain on the plant.
Sometimes the whole plant, including pods, is fed to livestock.
€Recent research in Sweden indicates that the amino acid arginine (or argŽ),
which is present in large quantities in groundnut seed, could help to combat
Mycobacterium tuberculosis „ Tuberculosis. Arginine boosts nitric oxide, which
helps the body to produce macrophages that combat some liver diseases.
LIMITATIONS
€Groundnut seeds mature unevenly, they are delicate and must be stored and
handled very carefully.
€Danger of Aflatoxins developing, causing liver damage and cancer„see
DiseasesŽ.
€Growing a crop requires high labour input unless systems are mechanised.
€Some groundnut varieties have a long seed dormancy.
€Germination falls rapidly if the seed is stored out of the pod or in hot and humid
conditions.
Haricot (French) bean
Phaseolus vulgaris
Black Bean, Green Bean, French Bean, Common Bean, Field Bean , Pole Bean ,(1)(2)
(Red) Kidney Bean , Navy Bean, Pea Bean , Pinto Bean, Salad Bean, String (3)(4)
Bean, Snap Bean. Flageolet, Frijoles; Haricot Commun, Haricot Vert, Haricot Pain,
Haricot à Couper (French); (Garten)bohne, Fisole (German); Frijol(es), Judía Verde,
Judía Comun, Alubia Tierna, Frijol Verde, Poroto Comun (Latin America), Ejote
(Mexico); Feijão da Índia, F. Ervilha, F. Colubrino (Portuguese); Bollokeh, Zada-
adagonna, Adagura (Tigray); Adenguaré, Bolooqee(Ethiopia); Edihimba, Ojoo,
Teiko (Uganda); Bush Bean (Zimbabwe); Feijão Ervilha, Ochipokeh (Angola); (5)
Fasulia (Sudan); Tua Phum, Tua Kack (Thailand); Jungli Sem (Hindi); Mula,
Michigan Pea Bean (Philippines)
Broad (Horse or Field) Beans are also called Field Beans. (1)
(2)
Lima Beans, Runner Beans and Hyacinth Beans are also called Pole Beans (3)
Kidney Beans in the USA are a specific type, with a definite kidney shape and
 seeds which are either red, dark red or white.
Pea Bean is the name often used in the commercial grain trade. (4)
(5)Ochipokeh is a general name for beansŽ (ChitangaŽ is for all types of climbing 
  beans)



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168TONY WINCH
 Haricot beans are grown either for their green pods, when they are commonly
known as French beans, or for their dried grain, when they are commonly known as
Haricot beans, or Haricots. 
 Several hundred varieties of Phaseolus vulgaris are available, exhibiting a wide
range of different plant types, which vary from the tall climbing or poleŽ types with
twining stems which may grow up to 5 m long, to the dwarf or bush types no more
than 30 or 40 cm tall.
 They are the most important grain legume, or pulseŽ, in Latin America and
some parts of Africa, where they provide a valuable, protein rich supplement to
carbohydrate staple food crops such as cassava, plantains and rice.
 Haricots, as they are often known, are grown widely throughout the world, but
are of relatively minor importance in India and most of tropical Asia where other
legumes, which are indigenous to these areas, are more popular.
 The annual global production is about 10 million MT, but is difficult to estimate
since FAO includes haricots with many other dry edible beansŽ such as mung bean,
lima bean, etc.
 In addition to Phaseolus vulgaris there are three important species of the genus
Phaseolus:
€ P. lunatus (Syn. P. limensis, P. inamoenus)„Lima Bean (large, usually white
seed), Sieva Bean (small, coloured seed) and Butter or Madagascar Bean (2B)
€ P. aureus (Syn. Vigna radiata)„Mung Bean, (Green or Golden Gram) (2B)
€ P. mungo (Vigna mungo)„Black Gram, Mash, Urd or Woolly Pyrol
There are also a few other less important but useful and productive Phaseolus
species, such as P. acutifolius var. latifolius„Tepary Bean (2G) and P. coccineus
(P. multiflorus)„(Scarlet) Runner Bean
The Moth Bean, also called Mat bean or Turkish gram, was formerly classified as
Phaseolus aconitifolius, but is now generally classified as Vigna aconitifolas.
The Adzuki Bean was formerly classified as Phaseolus angularis (or Dolichos
angularis) but is now generally classified as Vigna angularis.
Plant breeders have successfully produced some hybrids between some of these
species, such as P. vulgaris X P. coccineus, but so far none have proved to be very
useful.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed. Haricots are almost 100% self-pollinated.
Soil: haricots grow in most soil types. Optimum pH is 6.0…6.8, minimum 5.2,
maximum 7.0.„intermediate toleranceŽ to acidity. Sensitive to high concentrations
of manganese, aluminium and boron. Rainfed crops need about 60…100 cm of
topsoil to produce strong, healthy plants.
Intercropping: very common, for good reasons, with crops such as maize, sweet
potatoes, coffee, cotton, etc. Earliest food growers appreciated the value of a
haricot/cereal partnership.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK169
Seed rate: this varies greatly, according mainly to variety. Some examples, in kg/ha:
Canadian Wonder 55…70, pole snap beans 22…34, bush snap beans 56…170. There
are approximately 2000…5000 seeds per kg.
Seed spacing: 5…23 cm between plants, 52…90 cm between rows.
Depth: 2.5…5.0 cm in heavier soil, 5…10 cm in light soil.
Inoculation: generally not necessary. The common Cowpea GroupŽ of rhizobia are
often ineffective on Phaseolus species.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: French bean plants respond to day length according to species and sub-
species. Most climbing types are either long-day or short-day, most bush types are
day-neutral.
Growth period: 60…150 days for mature, dry seed; 45…75 days for green pods.
Temperature: optimum is 16…24°C. Growth stops altogether at c.10°C, and the
plant is killed by frost. Maximum is about 30°C.
Rainfall: haricots can produce a reasonable crop with 400 mm rainfall per year if
the rain is well distributed. They benefit from some rain at flowering and seed-set,
and dry weather for harvest of dry beans. Yields start to decrease when rainfall
exceeds 1500 mm, due to both flower drop and increased disease damage.
Altitude: approximate range, in msl: tropics 600…1950, Kenya 900…1500, Ethiopia
1650…1950.
Pests: in the tropics, pests are usually the main limiting factor to growing haricot
beans:
… Aphids„cause damage by both sucking the plant sap and by transmitting virus
diseases. Black aphids are often the worst, causing yellowing and distortion of the
leaves.
… Mexican Bean Beetle„these eat the leaves, and are easily controlled with
insecticides.
… Bean Leaf Beetle„the larvae attack the roots, the adults attack the leaves and
stems.
… Bean Flies„very common in Africa. Stems crack and distort at the base
(hypocotyl). Control is best by seed dressings, and also with early planting, rotation
and the removal or destruction of volunteers and infected plants.
… White Flies„found mainly in Central and South America, they also transmit viral
diseases.
… Bean Pod Weevil„the seed is attacked in the pod.
… Potato Leaf Hopper and Green Leaf Hopper„plants are stunted. Some
resistance in some varieties, otherwise insecticides may become necessary.
… American (Cotton) Bollworm„mainly in Africa. Round holes are bored into the
seed pods.
… Spotted Borer„the larvae, which are olive-green and hairy and have rows of
dark spots, eat the seed inside the pod. Difficult to control.
… Spiny Bugs„cause damage by sucking plant sap, and also transmit a fungal
disease.



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170TONY WINCH
Other insects which have a taste for haricot beans include the corn seed maggot,
green stink bug, spider mites, cutworms, armyworms, root-knot nematodes and
several storage insects.
Diseases: very common, especially fungal and bacterial diseases in lowland humid
tropics and subtropics, and viral diseases in drier climates:
… Anthracnose„attacks the leaves, stems and pods. Seed-borne, and it also
survives for at least two years in the soil. Control: resistant varieties, rotation and
clean seed.
… Bean Rust„the leaves develop small white spots, which become rust coloured,
the leaves then turn yellow and dry up. Control: burn infected plants and crop
rotation; some varieties have some resistance to some of the races of Bean Rust.
… Ashy Stem Blight„seed-borne. Black marks on very young seedlings. Control:
clean seed.
… Angular (Grey) Leaf Spot„grey spots on the underside of leaves, which become
brown, and brown spots on upper leaf surfaces. Control: very difficult, though some
varieties have some resistance; also the use of clean seed and crop rotations, and the
destruction of infected plants.
… Powdery Mildew„all plant parts except the roots are infected. Control: various
fungicides and resistant varieties.
… Root Rots„ controlled with crop rotations.
… Sclerotinia Wilt (White Mould, Water Soft Rot)„usually after warm, humid
weather. Control is not easy, but widely spaced plants and crop rotations, with
cereals for example, or fungicides can limit the spread of this form of Wilt.
… Southern Blight (Southern Wilt, Crown Rot)„mainly in hot climates, the lower
leaves become yellow and fall off. Very difficult to control.
… Bacterial Diseases„such as Common Blight, Halo Blight and Bean Wilt. Halo
Blight is different from the other bacterial diseases in that it is more common in
cool, wet areas, while Common and Fuscous Bacterial Blights (Xanthomonas) are
more important in warm, wet areas.
 Symptoms: irregular dark spots on leaves or pods, each spot surrounded by a
yellow band or haloŽ. Control: clean seed and resistant varieties.
… Virus Diseases„at least five viruses attack haricot beans: Bean Common Mosaic
(BCM, or Bean Virus 1) is the most common. 
 Also Bean Yellow Mosaic (BYMV, or Bean Virus 2), Curly Top, Golden
Mosaic and Mottle Dwarf Virus Diseases.
YIELD
The global average yield of dry grain is approximately 500…1200 kg/ha, and in fact
the haricot bean generally has a bad reputation for low yields even though its yield
potential is at least 3.5 MT/ha. The average yield in Ethiopia is about 800 kg/ha.
 Yields of the green pods are more stable and reliable, and vary from about 3
MT/ha in India and Africa to about 7 MT/ha in Europe.
UTILISATION
€Dried beans of haricots provide the bulk of the protein intake of huge numbers
of people in many parts of South America, and some tropical parts of Asia and
Africa. The beans can also be processed into protein concentrates such as milk
substitutes. Although the nutritive value of haricot beans can be very high, it



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK171
can also be very variable according to the variety, growing conditions and
storage conditions. Fortunately, Phaseolus species (and other legumes) have a
high content of the essential amino acid lysine, and so can supplement cereal
proteins that are generally low in lysine.
€Green pods are the other main use for haricot beans. In Europe, America and
other temperate zones they are more normally grown for these immature pods,
either eaten as a vegetable or canned, dehydrated or frozen.
€Green beans are sometimes shelled from their pods and eaten as a vegetable.
€Leaves are sometimes used as a salad or potherb, or as famine food, in Asia and
Africa.
€Stems, dried leaves and other parts not suitable for human consumption make
useful livestock or poultry food, having a protein content of about 6%.
LIMITATIONS
€Yields of Phaseolus vulgaris are generally low, for a number of reasons, the
most common being damage caused by diseases and/or insects. Inoculation of
seed can sometimes be beneficial, but the yield response is unpredictable partly
due to the uncertainty regarding appropriate Rhizobia strains for specific
varieties and growing conditions. This topic is discussed in 1Fe, page 54.
€Cooking time for the dry beans is relatively long, and must be vigorous to
destroy lectins.
€Deficiency of the essential amino acids methionine and cystine (and
tryptophan).
€In storage the grain is liable to develop moulds (fungi), hard shells and a bad taste.
€Frost„the plants are extremely sensitive to sub-zero temperatures.
Lentil
Lens culinaris(Syn. L. esculenta, Ervum lens)
(Red) Dahl / Dal, Split Pea; Gram
Lentille (French); Linse (German); Lenteja (Spanish); Lentilha (Portuguese); 
Adesi (East Africa); Ads Masri (Sudan); Missar (Amharic), Bersem, Bursun, Birsin
(Ethiopia); Masur (Hindi); Sharkhal (Dari); Chaunangi, Chirisanagalu, Misurpappu,
Thulukkappayar (India)
The lentil is one of the most ancient food crops, and has been cultivated since at
least 6700 BC in the eastern Mediterranean. The red pottage of lentils for which
Esau sold his birthright was probably made from the red Egyptian lentil. A number
of different types of lentils are now grown in large areas in warm temperate and
subtropical regions, and in the tropics as a cool season crop or at high altitudes.
 The major producers are India, Pakistan, Turkey, Syria, Russia, Spain and
Ethiopia. Lentils were introduced successfully into the New World and are now
grown in Argentina, Chile and Washington State, North America. Global production
estimated by FAO in 2004 was about 3.8 million MT.



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172TONY WINCH
 The lentil plant is an annual, with slender stems and many branches, 15…60 cm
tall, with small pale mauve, blue, pink or white flowers 6…8 mm long. The pods are
small, about 3…9 mm across and no longer than 1.3cm in modern varieties. The pods
contain 1…3 (normally 2) seeds which vary in colour from yellow, green, orange, red
or grey to dark brown, sometimes mottled or speckled.
 Grain protein content ranges from 22 to 35%, but the nutritional value is low
because lentil is deficient in the amino acids methionine and cystine. Lentil is an
excellent supplement to cereal grain diets because of its good protein/carbohydrate
content, used in soups, stews, casseroles and salad dishes. Sometimes difficult to
cook because of the hard seed coat that results from excessively dry production
conditions.
In unmechanized (Žtraditional ) farming systems the entire plants are normally
pulled up and hung to dry, then threshed when required. The International Centre for
Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria is developing tall
upright lentil varieties adapted to mechanical harvesting
 The genus Lens is closely related to the Lathyrus and Vicia genera, and from a
farmers point of view lentils can be propagated and cared for as if they were field or
garden peas (Pisum sativum)„except that, in general, lentils tolerate higher
temperatures and drier soil than peas. The plants should be protected from wind
whenever possible.
 Lentils can be classified into two main groups:
€sub-species macrosperma„large-seeded varieties, with seeds 6…9 mm in
diameter. Grown mainly in Africa, Asia Minor and the Mediterranean.
€sub-species microsperma„small-seeded varieties, with seeds 3…6 mm in
diameter. Grown mainly in southwestern and western Asia.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed, which is 2…7mm diameter. 15,600…100,000 seeds per pound.
Usually self-pollinated, though some cross-pollination can occur.
Soil: lentils can thrive on fairly poor dry soil, but they prefer well-drained light to
medium soils; they do not tolerate waterlogging. Moderately tolerant of salinity and
acidity. Molybdenum is essential, and can be applied as molybdated gypsum at
about 50…60 kg/ha or as a foliar spray.
Seed rate: when intercropped 10 or 15 kg/ha is enough. As a pure stand anywhere
from 25 to 90 kg/ha or more are needed. 100 of the larger seeds weigh about 2g
(18  20,00…0 seeds/kg).
Spacing: 15…30 cm between plants, 60…90 cm between rows. Sometimes planted in
an almost square grid approximately 22 × 30 cm.
Depth: 1…6.5 cm according to seed size, soil type and moisture at planting.
Inoculation: seed should be inoculated with Rhizobium leguminosarum just prior to
planting (within 24 hours). 



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK173
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: most varieties are long-day plants, some are day-neutral.
Growth period: 80…100 days for early varieties, 125…180 days for later maturing
varieties.
Temperature: for germination the optimum is 18…21°°C, minimum c.15 C. For
growth, the optimum is about 24°C though varies according to variety. Maximum
tolerated is about 30°C.
Rainfall: the plants are moderately tolerant of drought, especially ssp. microsperma,
and survive long, hot summers. About 700 mm per year is usually enough, and pre-
harvest and harvest periods should be dry. Lentils are not well suited to the hot, wet
tropics.
Altitude: up to about 3500 m.
Pests: the most important are the gram caterpillar, white ants, gram cutworm and
weevils (which are also a storage insect problem with lentils).
Diseases: there are two important fungal diseases:
… Rust„the leaves and stems turn purple, and may die, especially in humid
conditions.
… Wilt„the leaves curl and the root system develops poorly, especially in light, dry
soil.
Both diseases can be controlled with crop rotation, seed dressing, use of resistant
varieties and destroying the diseased haulm.
YIELD
As part of a mixed cropping system, lentils may only provide a few hundred kilos
per hectare, while pure stands even in relatively simple systems should yield at least
one metric tonne(MT)/ha.  With adequate rainfall and proper cultivation techniques
a modern improvedŽ variety should give at least two MT/ha provided that disease
and insect attacks are kept under control.
 FAO reported that the global average in 2004 was 966 kg/ha, from a high in
China of 2.5 MT/ha to a low of 100 kg/ha in Uzbekistan.
UTILISATION
€Lentils are not only highly nutritious, containing about 25% protein, 1% fat and
56% carbohydrate, they are also more easily digested than most of the other
legumes, and so can be invaluable in emergency feeding programmes. The split
seed, known as dhal, is normally eaten in soups and porridges. Lentils are also a
good source of Vitamin A (up to 200 IU/100 g), Vitamin B1 and B2, iron
(7 mg/100 g) and phosphorus. 
€The grain is a source of commercial starch, used in textiles and printing.
€The flour can be mixed with cereal flours to make cake or bread, or invalid and
baby food.
€The young pods are sometimes eaten as a vegetable, in India for example.
€The crop can be grown as a green manure, enriching the soil with Nitrogen and
organic matter.
€The straw, or haulm, is a very nutritious animal food, being richer in proteins
and lower in fibre than the other legumes.



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174TONY WINCH
LIMITATIONS
€Lentil plants are very susceptible to diseases.
€There is a lack of well adapted varieties, even modern ones being unsatisfactory
with regard to both disease resistance and yield.
€As human food the lentil has a certain notoriety regarding flatulence.
Lima Bean
Phaseolus lunatus (Syn. P. limensis, P. inamoenus)
Sieva Bean (small, coloured seeds), Madagascar Bean, Butter Bean, Burma Bean,
Curry Bean, Rangoon Bean, Sugar Bean, Towe, Potato Limas; Pois Amer, Pois de
Sept Ans, Haricot de Lima, Haricot du Cap, Haricot du Kissi (French); Limabohne,
Mondbohne (German); Judin, Juda de Lima, Poroto de Manteca (Spanish); Feijo
de Lima (Portuguese); Abangbang, Chuku (Uganda); Feijo Espadinho*, Chitanga
** (Angola); Roaj (Sudan); Habichuela (also for Haricot Bean), Sibatse Simaron,
Tagalo Patani, Zabache (Philippines); Tua Rachamat (Thailand); Lobyan (Pashto)
*Feijão Espada (also known as Feijão de Cobra, Feijão Holandês and Feijão de
Porco) are Portuguese names for the common jackbean (Canavalia ensiformis).
The Lima Bean is also described as Feijão de Porco in Brazil.
**Chitanga is often used in Angola to describe any type of climbing bean
The Lima Bean is widely grown in Central and South America, North America and
Canada and many parts of Asia, especially Burma. Lima beans are one of the major
food legumes in the humid rain forests of Africa and Madagascar. It is generally a
tropical and lowland species, and needs a hot growing season.
 There are two main types:
… Pole (climbing) varieties„twining, perennial herbs which either trail along the
ground or are grown up supports. Can grow 2…4 metres in length. Long growth
period.
… Bush varieties„developed by selection of appropriate mutations during culti-
vation to be annuals 30…90 cm tall. Can mature in 60…70 days.
 Botanists sometimes divide the Lima bean into two separate species, Phaseolus
limensis„the Lima bean, mainly perennial but cultivated as annuals, both pole and
bush types, with large normally white seed, and Phaseolus lunatus, the Sieva bean,
an annual with smaller, coloured seed, and which is more tolerant of drought and
high temperatures. 
 However these two species (so-called) cross pollinate readily, and both display
all forms of growth habit, seed size and colour, etc., so the Lima bean is best
considered as one species, Phaseolus lunatus.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK175
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed. Mainly self-pollinated, with up to about 18% cross-
pollination.
Soil: adapts to a wide range, including acidic soil, provided they are well drained
and aerated, and not saline. Optimum pH is 6…7; Lima beans (and cowpeas) often
will grow well in soils that are too acid for other beans. Mulching often improves the
growth and yield of Lima beans.
Seed rate: from 10 kg/ha for pole types in India to 130…170 kg/ha for large-seeded
bush types.
Seed spacing: Bush types: 5…20 cm between plants; 10…15 cm between rows for
large seed, 7…12 cm for small seed. Climbing types: 15…30 cm between plants, 75
cm between rows„or on hills, 120 × 120 cm, with 3…4 plants per hill. Seed size
varies from 500…1100 seeds per kg.
Depth: 2.5…5 cm in moist, heavy soil, up to 10 cm in lighter, drier soil.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: the wild types and some of the varieties from the tropics are short-day
plants, while most other types are day-neutral.
Growth period: the fastest is about 65 days, up to about 100 days, for the earliest
(ie fastest growing) bush varieties. Large-seeded white types can take 200…270 days,
producing pods for several months ie indeterminate growth habit. In the tropics lima
beans can be grown as a perennial.
Temperature: Limas need more heat than Haricots to germinate and grow well, and
growth is slow below 13°C. Frost sensitive. Optimum is 16…27°C. 
For planting, soil should be at least 18°C.
Rainfall: tolerates higher rainfall than Haricots, and does best in humid and sub-
humid tropics with 900…1500 mm annual rainfall or more. Can grow with only 500
mm during the growth period, but then needs some top-up irrigation and also at least
about 70% relative humidity at flowering and pod set.
Rotation: ideally Lima Beans should follow a well-manured crop such as potatoes,
though they are often grown on the same land for many years.
Altitude: the optimum is 900…1800 m in the tropics and 900…1200 m in temperate
zones.
Pests: insect attacks can be serious, though it is a tough plant and more resistant
than other legumes of the humid tropics. The plant is attacked by the same insects
that damage other Phaseolus species, and the Lima Bean Pod Borer is also a
widespread problem. The Cowpea Weevil attacks both in the field and in storage,
and the Bean Bruchid can be a serious problem in stored grain.
Diseases: like most beans, the Lima is susceptible to a number of diseases,
including:
… Root Rots„controlled with seed dressing.
… Pod Blight„seed-borne, so can be controlled by only using clean seed.
… Downy Mildew„worse in warm and humid conditions.
… Bacterial Blights„there are three types: Common, Halo Blight and Bacterial
Spot. All can be controlled with clean seed and rotation.
… Yeast Spot„the seeds are damaged, pittedŽ, without visible damage to the pod.
… Anthracnose„controlled with clean seed and crop rotation.



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176TONY WINCH
… Virus Diseases„there are several, such as Bean Golden Yellow Mosaic, which
prevents the plant from producing seed.
YIELD
In unmechanized agriculture yields of lima beans can be up to about 1.5 MT/ha, but
about 300…600 kg/ha is more common. In good conditions lima beans can produce
more than 3 MT/ha, and in North America yields of 4.5 MT/ha are common.
 These high yields indicate the strong potential of this crop, though it is not
always easy to find good seed of varieties that are adapted to marginal conditions.
UTILISATION
€Dry beans„Lima beans are normally grown to produce the dry, mature bean,
often called butterbeansŽ. They are normally boiled, fried in oil or baked. Care
should be taken as some older varieties, mainly the ones with dark seed colour,
contain dangerous levels of poisonous cyanogenetic glucosides such as
phaseolunatin and linamarin which can produce toxic HCN, hydrocyanic
(prussic) acid. The dry beans contain adequate but not exceptional levels of
protein (20%), fat (1.5%) and carbohydrate (60%). They are also used to
produce protein-rich bean flour.
€Green pods„these are normally picked and picked againŽ. In the tropics, and
elsewhere, they are sometimes cooked and eaten as a green vegetable. In North
America they are canned and also sometimes frozen, and the immature seed is
canned or frozen.
€Leaves and stems„can be fed to animals direct, or made into hay or silage.
€Cover crop (page 63) and green manure crop (page 69).
LIMITATIONS
€The yield and cooking quality of lima beans can be disappointing.
€Modern, improved varieties are in short supply.
€cooking time can be long for dark seed colour types, to destroy the poisons (see
UtilisationŽ, above). The beans should be either roasted or well boiled in two
changes of water.
€Temperature requirements for growing a crop are quite specific, and the plants
are also frost sensitive.
€Indeterminate growth habit of the climbing types and older varieties (though
this is often more of a benefit than a limitation for subsistence farmers).



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK177
Mung Bean
Phaseolus aureus (Syn. Vigna radiata)
Green Gram, Golden Gram, Jerusalem Pea, Oorud Bean;
Haricot Doré, Haricot Mungo*, Ambérique* (de Madagascar), Boubour (French); 
Mungbohne (German); Judia Mung, Poroto Mung, Frijol de Oro (Spanish); 
Chickasano, (Lubia)Chiroko* (Africa); Batong-hidjao*, Mongo, Mungo
(Philippines); Tientsin Green Bean (Asia); Tua Kiew, Tua Tawng, Tua Tong
(Thailand); 
Mai (Pashtu)
*these are also names for Black Gram (a.k.a. Urd (Bean), Mash, Woolly Pyrol)
Phaseolus mungo Syn.Vigna mungo
There are more than 2000 types of this fast growing legume, which display a large
range of plant type, form and adaptation. The majority are 30…90 cm tall, while other
types are more than a metre high.
 Two main types of mung bean are recognised: green gram, grown mainly for
human food, either cooked or as sprouts, and golden or yellow gram which is
mainly grown for hay and other animal food, or for a green manure or cover crop.
 The mung bean is very similar to the black gram (see above); the two can be
distinguished as follows:
Black GramMung Bean
PodsErect or sub-erect, with long Spreading or reflexed, with short
hairs. 4-10 seeds hairs. 10-15 seeds
SeedLarger, oblong, smooth, Smaller, round, mainly green,
mainly black, sometimes sometimes yellow or blackish,
olive green, with beakŽ without beakŽ
Concave Flat, round, white
Hilum
Mung beans are probably the most important bean crop in Asia and in large areas
East of Pakistan. They are also widely grown in India, Thailand, Indonesia,
Bangladesh, the Philippines, Africa, Australia and the Americas.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed. Almost always self-pollinated.
Soil: must be well drained. Mung beans tolerate both alkaline and saline soils, but
are sensitive to acidic ones. Responds well to phosphatic fertilisers, in both granular
and foliar form.
Seed rate: 3…4 kg/ha when broadcast or intercropped, 5…22 kg/ha when grown in a
pure stand. 100 seeds weigh 2…4 g.
Seed spacing: very often broadcast. If in rows, 4…5 cm between plants, 25…88 cm
between rows.
Depth: 3…4 cm.



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178TONY WINCH
Rotation: often grown after rice or another cereal. Rootknot nematodes can cause
serious problems if mung beans are grown too often on the same land.
Intercropping: mung beans are often grown as a subordinate crop, mixed with
cereals such as sorghum, maize or millet, and even sugarcane.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: most varieties of mung beans are short-day, though long-day and day-
neutral varieties also exist.
Growth period: 80…120 days, up to 150 days, on average, though some new
varieties mature in 65 days. The green pods can be eaten 50…70 days after sowing.
Temperature: frost sensitive, and requires warm conditions, 30…36°C being
optimum.
Rainfall: 650 mm minimum, 750…900 mm optimum. Poor seed-set if it rains during
flowering, and ideally the plants should mature during the dry season or a dry
period.
Altitude: 0…1800 m.
Pests: in Africa mung beans appear to be less susceptible to pests and diseases than
haricots (French beans) or cowpeas, while in southeast Asia it is attacked by the
same pests and diseases as the other legumes, such as:
… Bean Fly„the most serious pest in southeast Asia. Control: granular carbofuran at
planting.
… Root-knot Nematodes„controlled with crop rotations. Some mung bean varieties
also act as hosts of the soybean cyst nematode.
… Aphids, Cutworms, Pod Borers and Red Spider Mites„can be troublesome,
such as in the Philippines, and may need chemical control.
… Storage Pests„such as the Cowpea Weevil, which also attacks the plants in the
field, and the Storage Weevil, a problem in Thailand, which affects some mung bean
varieties more than others.
YIELD
Average yields of mung bean are about 250…700 kg/ha (1 MT/ha in North America),
though modern improved varieties can yield more than 2 MT/ha in good conditions.
 Individual pods can be removed as they ripen, or the whole plant can be uprooted
and either sun-dried or dried indoors.
UTILISATION
€Dry beans„mung beans are mainly grown for human food, the dry beans
being either boiled and eaten whole, or split and made into dhal. They are
highly nutritious, with a protein content of 22…31% (average 25%) with modern
varieties, and are more digestible than most other legumes. The beans are also
made into flour, or used as a source of starch, or made into sprouts; the sprouts
are also canned and quick-frozen. Dry beans are sometimes used for animal
food, mainly poultry, when they are either roasted or boiled.
€Green, immature pods are sometimes eaten as a vegetable.
€Leaves and stems after harvest can be used as fodder; protein content is 
c. 10%.
€Cover crop and green manure crop.



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LIMITATIONS
€Traditional mung bean varieties have relatively low yield and protein content.
€Modern, improved varieties are in short supply.
€Shattering of the pods can be a problem.
€Pests and diseases can devastate crops.
€The plants are frost sensitive and need warm growing conditions.
€Weeds can easily overcome the growing crop, especially in the first few weeks.
Pigeon Pea
Cajanus cajan (Syn. C. indicus, C.bicolor, C.flavus, Cytisus cajan))
Red Gram, Yellow Dahl, Angola Pea, Congo Pea or Bean, Gungo Pea, No-eye Pea,
Cajan (Catjang) Pea, Puspo (Sacha) poroto, Shantouken, Tuvaram, Toovar;
Embrevade, Pois Cajan, Pois Nain, Pois dAngola, Pois de Congo (French); 
Straucherbse, Taubenerbse, Strauchbohne (German); Frijol Guandul, F.de la India,
Guisante de Paloma, G.Enano (Spanish); Guando, Guandu, (Feijão)Andu, Jinjonji,
Ervilha (Feijão) de Congo (Angola), Feijao Boer (Mozambique); Ervilha de Angola,
Ervilha de Sete Anos, Feijão de Árvore, F. Guandu, F. Andu, Guandeiro, Guando,
Guandu, Andu, (Portuguese); Yewof-attah, Ohota-farengota (Ethiopia); Ads Sudani,
Lubia Adassi (Sudan); Burusa, Apena, Lopena (Uganda); Arhar, Tur, Adhaki,
Arahar, Ihora, Kandalu, Cror (India); Cadios (Philippines); Togare (Thailand); Frijol
de Palo (Salvador); Guando/u (Latin America); Gandul (Central America)
The pigeon pea is an erect, hardy, woody shrub 0.5…5 m tall which adapts to a wide
range of growing conditions. About 90% of global production is grown in India,
other main producers being Uganda, Malawi, Tanzania, Puerto Rico, Dominica,
Burma and southeast Asia. The annual global production in 2004 was estimated by
FAO as 3.3 million MT, though very little enters international trade; it is the worlds
fifth most important pulse crop.
 The plant is a short-lived perennial which can be harvested for five years or
more, though yields are normally lower after the first year; it is therefore often
grown only for one or two years.
 It is a useful crop to grow in poor soils and where fertiliser is unavailable or
expensive, and is a suitable crop for no-tillŽ (ie no ploughing) agriculture. It can
nodulate in most soils, producing more nitrogen than most other legumes.
 The grain is a good source of protein (18…30%), carbohydrates and minerals.
There are two distinct botanical varieties, or sub-species:
 var. flavus„earlier maturing, semi-dwarf, with yellow flowers and green seed
pods 4…10 cm long with 2 or 3 light-coloured seeds. Known as TurŽ types in India,
or No-eye Pea in Jamaica.
 var. bicolor„later maturing, larger perennial types, with red and purple streaks
on the flowers and hairy, purple seed pods 4…5 cm long with 1…5 darker coloured,
spotted and coarser seeds. Known as ArhairŽ or ArharŽ types in India, or Congo
Pea in Jamaica.



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180TONY WINCH
 There is also a wide range of intermediate types, with great variation in height,
growth period and photoperiodic response. Many named varieties are available,
more than 100 in India alone, and there is a major plant breeding effort underway to
improve yield and disease resistance.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed, but cuttings can also be used. They are mainly self-
pollinated, though up to 40% cross-pollination can occur. Inoculation can greatly
increase yields.
Soil: pigeon peas grow well in infertile, but not waterlogged, soils (ridge planting is
recommended in soils liable to waterlogging). Moderate tolerance to saline soils.
Optimum pH is 5…7. Yields are reduced when soils are deficient in Manganese or
Phosphorus. Rarely responds well to fertilisers, though Phosphorus often increases
the efficiency of root Rhizobia, which can fix up to 100 kg/ha of Nitrogen.
Intercropping: very common, with maize, sorghum, finger millet, pearl millet,
cassava, sesame and groundnuts.
Weeds: weeds can quickly overcome a pigeon pea crop and should be well
controlled for the first few weeks.
Depth: 2.5…8 cm.
Seed spacing: not very critical as the plants are good at compensating. Average is
60 cm between plants, 120 cm between rows. When intercropped, one row of pigeon
peas is often planted for every 3…5 rows of the primary crop.
Seed rate: 1…6 kg/ha intercropped, 9…30 kg/ha in pure stand. 17…19,000 seeds/kg.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: all three types are found, though most modern varieties are short-day,
in which case the sowing date is critical as this affects the growth period, height and
yield.
Growth period: very variable, from 80 days to more than a year for the first grain
harvest, depending on variety, planting date, growing conditions and location. 
Pruning of the branches after the first harvest encourages branching and helps
maintain yield of the second harvest. Both determinate and indeterminate types
exist.
Temperature: pigeon peas are sun-loving plants and most varieties are frost
sensitive at all stages. The optimum temperature is 18…29°C, minimum is 10°C and
maximum about 35°C.
Rainfall: drought resistant; ideal growing conditions are 600…1000 mm/a., with
heavy rainfall for the first weeks of growth and a dry period for flowering and
harvest. The minimum is about 350 mm/a., maximum is about 2500 mm/a. Wet
weather tends to produce excessive vegetative growth at the expense of grain
production.
Altitude: in Venezuela pigeon peas are grown up to 3000 m.
Pests: not often a big problem; the worst are the Gram Caterpillar, Red Gram Plume
Moth, Gram Pod Fly, American Bollworm and Spotted Pod Borer. 
In storage Pulse Beetles and Bruchids can cause serious damage if they are not
kept under control with fumigation.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK181
Diseases: Fusarium Wilt is usually the most serious; it is a soil-borne fungus,
controlled with a 3…5 year crop rotation and/or resistant varieties. There are also a
number of diseases caused by viruses, such as Pigeon Pea Mosaic.
YIELD
Commonly achieved yields of dried pigeon pea seed are from about 250 to 900
kg/ha when intercropped, and 1.7…3.5 MT/ha when in pure stand. 
 FAO estimated the global average yield for 2004 was 721 kg/ha, with a high in
Trinidad and Tobago of 2.7 MT/ha and a low of 479 kg/ha in Panama.
 Green pods harvested from pure stands should yield 1…5 MT/ha.
UTILISATION
Pigeon peas are potentially immensely useful and are a fine example of a multi-
purpose crop, which can be used to satisfy a vast range of needs, listed below:
€Mature, dry grain contains 15…32% protein (24% on average) and is also a
good source of Vitamin B, methionine and cystine. Normally used in the form
of split peasŽ soaked in water for several hours, then either boiled, or pounded
and then fried or steamed. Often eaten with maize, it is said to be more
nutritious when eaten with rice. The seed can be germinated to produce sprouts;
small-seeded varieties or crushed s  eed can be used as poultry food.
€Fresh, green seed is eaten raw as a vegetable in many countries and can be
canned.
€Green pods can be boiled and eaten as a vegetable or in curries.
€Animal fodder„either fresh plants can be fed or grazed, or dried plants can be
ground into a meal for winter or dry season fodder.
€Green manure, support crop, windbreak, shade crop and erosion control.
€Dry stalks/stems„used for firewood, thatching, basket-making and charcoal.
€Traditional medicines and raising silkworms.
LIMITATIONS
€Pigeon pea plants are sensitive to frost, acidic soil and waterlogging.
€The germination rate falls rapidly in humid conditions.
€The plants are often slow to reach maturity, particularly the older, traditional
varieties.
€Humid conditions reduce yields, while dry conditions can cause shattering.



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182TONY WINCH
Soybean
Glycine max (Syn. G. soja, G. hispida, Soja max)
Soya, Soy, Soy Bean, Soya Bean, Soyabean; 
Soya, Soja (French); Sojabohne (Germany); Soja (Spanish & Portuguese)
Soybeans are highly efficient producers of protein and oil for both human and
animal food. They are also widely used in industry, and are the most important of all
the grain legumes in the world in economic terms.. Global production in 2004 was
estimated by FAO at 204 million MT. 
 The main nutritional attributes of soya are, per 100 g of edible portion of the
seed, 380 kcals energy, 35…40 g protein and 18…24 g oil. In common with groundnuts,
soybeans can be considered to be an oil producing crop (they are sometimes referred
to as oilseed legumesŽ) because of their high oil content. The oil contains useful
amounts of phosphorus, and is normally considered to be a dryingŽ type, and
sometimes as semi-dryingŽ ie it normally forms an elastic film when in contact
with air. The glycerides are of the unsaturated type. 
 The amino acid distribution of soybean protein is more similar to animal protein
than the protein from most vegetable sources, containing for example 5.4% lysine. It
is thought that the protein in soya may lower blood cholesterol, and its isoflavines
may reduce the risk of some cancers.
 They were first cultivated in China around the eleventh century BC, the earliest
soya plants being climbing types. Soybeans need climates with hot, humid summers
to grow well and are rarely satisfactory as a European crop. Plant breeding work is
being done to produce varieties suitable for cultivation in the UK by selecting fast
growing plants able to mature in the short North European growing season.
 The plant is an erect, annual legume, 30…170 cm tall, which sheds its leaves at
maturity. The flowers are small, and either white or lilac/purple. The pods contain 
1…5 seeds, normally 2 or 3, which are highly variable in size and colour between
varieties. The seed is normally either yellow, green, brown or black.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed. For northern temperate regions, modern quick maturing
varieties are adapted to flower and fruit in the shortening days of July and August.
Traditional varieties only flower during the lengthening days of early summer and so
cannot produce any seed in the cool, short northern summers.
Soil: soya will grow well in slightly acid soil, the optimum being about pH 6…6.5.
On more acid soils lime should be applied 2 or 3 months before planting. Heavy
soils will grow soya if they are well drained, and light soils also if they have
sufficient moisture, but the best soils are rich, sandy loams. Adequate amounts of
phosphate, potash and calcium are essential, and about 25 kg/ha of Nitrogen is
normally beneficial even for soya growing in good soils. Most soya varieties are
moderately tolerant to salinity, and some varieties are tolerant.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK183
Seed rate: 40…90 kg/ha. Seed size varies from 5000 to 40,000 per kilogram, the
average for modern varieties being about 10,000 … 20,000.
Seed spacing: a rule of thumb is to have between 25 and 40 plants per metre along
the row, with 60…100 cm between rows, to arrive at an optimum plant population of
about 400,000 per hectare.
Depth: 2…4.5 cm.
Intercropping: generally not recommended for soybean except when grown for hay
or forage, when it can be mixed with maize, sorghum or Sudan grass.
Inoculation: the seed should be inoculated with the appropriate strain of Rhizobia
when planted in soils which have either not grown soyabeans for two or three years
or which have never grown soya. In most cases, and if carried out properly, this
procedure will increase both the yield of seed and the amount of Nitrogen fixed in
the soil (1Fe).
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: understanding the ways in which soybeans respond to the changing
length of day„the latitude, in other words „ is very useful when deciding to
introduce new varieties into an area. Most varieties of soybeans are very sensitive to
photoperiod„the relative lengths of day and night „ and are said to be photoperiod
sensitiveŽ. They tend to flower earlier as the day length becomes shorter. As a result
any one particular variety is well adapted to grow properly only in a narrow latitude
band, approximately 160…250 km from North to South. As an example: in the
Northern hemisphere, if a soybean variety adapted to one latitude band is grown
north of this band it will flower, and therefore mature, later than normal, perhaps too
late before the winter. If that same variety is taken South of this latitude band, it will
flower and mature earlier than normal, producing small, underdeveloped plants„or
it may not flower at all.
 Most soybean varieties are short-day plants they normally start to flower soon
after the day length begins to shorten ie 21st June in the northern hemisphere
and 21st December in the southern hemisphere. This topic is also discussed in 1Ej,
page 42.
Growth period: for mature beans, anywhere from 80 to 175 days, depending on the
variety, location and planting date.
Temperature: soil temperature at planting should be at least 10°C; 15°C is even
better. The ideal temperature range for growth for most varieties is 24  …32°C. Both
young and mature plants of most varieties can withstand a little touch of frost, but
not too much.
Growth habit: most varieties of soybean are determinate, meaning that the plant
only increases in height very little after it has started to flower, and also the
flowering period is relatively short so that the grains tend to mature at more or less
the same time. Other varieties, including many of the older, traditional ones, are
indeterminate, meaning that their height, or length, increases from two to four times
after it has started to flower. These types continue to flower over a much longer
period, so that the pods and seed also mature over a much longer period, as
discussed in 2Ei, page 42.
Rainfall: to produce really good crops of soya, a regular supply of rain, or irrigation,
is needed. Water stress is particularly damaging during the period from the



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184TONY WINCH
flowering stage to just before pod maturity. On the other hand, soybeans need less
water than maize.
Altitude: soya cultivation is restricted to altitudes which have about 100 days of
growing period with average temperatures above about 20°C. Some varieties, such
as Chippewa, are adapted to the lowland tropics.
Pests: insects can devastate fields of soya. The most serious are the Semi-looper
caterpillars, Bean Fly, Cutworms, Aphids and Snout Beetles.
Diseases: altogether at least 50 diseases attack soybeans; all three types of disease
occur:
… Bacterial„Stem Blight, Leaf Pustule, Bacterial Blight
… Fungal„Downy Mildew, Wild Fire, Frog-eye Spot
…Viral„Soybean Mosaic, Yellow Bean Mosaic. Most of these diseases of soybean
can be controlled to some extent by using a combination of resistant or tolerant
varieties with seed dressings and crop rotations. Aphid numbers may have to be kept
under control with insecticides to reduce Mosaic and other viral diseases, but spread
of the other diseases should be possible without recourse to pesticides.
Nutrient deficiencies: the symptoms of major, minor and trace element deficiencies
are described below; though these symptoms are often partly masked by diseases.
The most common are:
… Phosphorus„plants are stunted and have blue-green leaves.
… Potassium„leaf edges become yellow.
… Iron„yellowing between the leaf veins.
… Manganese„also yellowing between the leaf veins.
… Molybdenum„plants are stunted; more common in acid soils.
… Zinc„leaves & stems smaller than normal, yellow between leaf veins, especially
lower leaves.
Trace element toxicities:
… Manganese„especially in acid soils; leaves, especially those at the top of the
plant, are crinkled with downward turned margins.
… Boron„crinkled leaves, which may fall off, and which die from the leaf margins
inwards.
For more information on Nutrient Deficiency, Trace Element Toxicity, etc., see
1Cd, Trace ElementsŽ pages 23…29.
YIELD
The global average yields of soybeans have been steadily increasing for more than
20 years, from around 1400 kg/ha in the mid-1970s, to more than 1700 kg/ha in the
mid-1980s to around 2 MT/ha in the late 1990s (2.23 MT/ha in 2004, according to
FAO).  In good growing conditions, modern soybean varieties can consistently
produce more than 5 MT/ha. 
 Ideally soya seed should be stored at 10% moisture, and at no more than 12%
moisture if it is to be kept for any length of time. 
 All seed stocks should be handled and stored with great care in order to avoid
falls in germination rates that can be dramatic.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK185
UTILISATION
€Soybeans are widely used in a vast range of industries„adhesives, nutrients,
fertiliser, textiles and fibres„and in the food industry for both humans and
animals. The grain contains no starch and so it is a good protein source for
diabetics. Soya is the main source of lecithin, used in food processing such as an
emulsifier in margarine.
€Cheese-like products such as tempeh, tofu and miso are made from soya
€In many countries the high protein content of soybeans is consumed as soya
milkŽ. The soya grains are lightly toasted and ground into a rough flour which
is then boiled with water and drunk as a kind of soup.
€A few varieties such as Butterbean, Frostbeater and Envy are eaten as green
beans, cooked when the seed is full size but still green and tender.
€Soybeans can be used as a nitrogen enriching green manure crop, sometimes
planted together with cowpeas.
€The growing crop can be fed to animals, either grazed or as forage, but care
should be taken with immature seed which can cause abortion due to the
oestrogens present in it.
LIMITATIONS
€Most varieties of soybean are only adapted to grow well in a relatively small
geographical area, mainly in temperate regions, and to perform to their full
potential in technically advanced agricultural systems, including high fertiliser
input. There are relatively few varieties adapted for the tropics or subtropics or
for cultivation by subsistence farmers with modest inputs.
€No varieties have yet been developed with true frost resistance, and they require
a longish growing season, two reasons that they are rarely grown in northern
Europe.
€Yields are low in acidic and/or infertile soil, and when there are insufficient
accumulated heat units during the growing season;
€The beans are not very palatable to humans until they have been elaborately
prepared and cooked.
€The seed may have to be inoculated (1Fe, page 54), which can be logistically
challenging.
€The seed is delicate, so the germination rate falls rapidly in storage when the
temperature or humidity is high, or if the seed is transported and/or handled
roughly.



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186TONY WINCH
Vetch (Grass Pea or Chickling)
Lathyrus sativus
Chickling Pea, Chickling Vetch, Blue Vetchling, Lathyrus (Pea), Manila Bean,
Indian Vetch; 
Gesse Blanche, Gesse Chiche, Gesse Commune, Gesette, Lentille dEspagne, Vesce
{Gesse} (French); Saat Platterbse (German); Pisello Bretonne, Pisello Cicerchia
(Italian); Almorta (Spanish); Sebbere, Sabberi* (North Ethiopia), Guaya (Amharic
and Oromifa); Batura, Chural, Kansari, Kisari, Latri, Santal, Teora (India); Matri
(Pakistan); Kalool, Patak (Dari)
*also used for Cowpea.
The Vetch or Grass Pea is a hardy and very drought resistant crop that is grown
mainly in India, and in other dry areas with poor soil and low rainfall such as Eritrea
and Ethiopia, especially in times of famine. The plant is a native of southern Europe and
western Asia but nowadays it is not commonly grown outside India, Ethiopia
and Eritrea. It is in fact a fodder crop, but the seeds are often eaten by poor people in
emergencies such as famine. It was one of the earliest crops grown and was farmed
in the Middle East more than 5000 years ago.
 It will grow in very infertile soils, if they are not too acidic. The plant has a
climbing or straggling growth habit, with many branches, which can grow up to 9 m
long; it looks similar to Pisum sativum the common or garden pea but has much
narrower and more elongated leaflets. The flowers are usually blue, but are pink,
red, violet or white in some varieties. The pods are small and flat, 2.5…4 cm long,
and contain 3-5 seeds which are either white, black, brownish-grey, yellow or
spotted. Large, white seed is the most popular for human food. The smaller seeded
types (called Lakhori in India) have a weight of about 5…7 g per 100 seeds, while the
larger seeded types (Lakh) have a weight of 7…18 g per 100 seeds. The seeds contain
about 2 5…28% protein, 0.6…1% fat, 45…61% carbohydrate and 3% mineral matter. It
is the cheapest available pulse crop in most of India.
 Maps showing areas where Vetch is grown in Ethiopia are available as gif files
on http://www.general.uwa.edu.au/u/enneking/lathyrus/ It is estimated that 100,000…
140,000 Ha is currently cultivated in Ethiopia.
Lathyrism
The seed of vetch also contains a non-protein, neurotoxic amino acid (beta-oxalyl-
diamino-propionic acid) which can cause paralysis of the lower limbs in children,
men, horses and cattle, known as lathyrism, if the grain is eaten for an extended
period of time. It is said that a diet with 30…50% of grass pea eaten for 3…6 months
can cause lathyrism, which is sudden, acute and irreversible ie there is no cure. In
some very poor parts of India and Africa lathyrism is a public health problem (and
the crop is sometimes banned). 
 Vetch is also found in some parts of North Africa, including Eritrea and North
Ethiopia, where its local name of TSebbere means the breakerŽ. It is thought that 



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK187
lathyrism sometimes occurs due to admixture with seed of the common vetch (Vicia
sativa). The toxin is greatly reduced if the seed is soaked in plenty of water for some
hours, then sun-dried, or if the grain is partially boiled in the same way as rice.
Unfortunately this causes the B Vitamins to be lost. The toxin is not destroyed
during the normal methods of preparing chapattis. There is much research work
currently in progress to breed varieties with lower levels of the amino acid.
 People who regularly eat vetch (and HIV patients) may appear to be well
nourished but they should be included in food relief and supplementary feeding
programmes since malnutrition, particularly Sulphur amino acid, Zinc and
Manganese malnutrition during famine caused by drought is a key factor leading to
lathyrism. Diets with N-acetyl-cysteine are likely to be beneficial, but a nutritionist
should be consulted for formulation together with other essential nutrients and safe
dosage of this very acidic Sulphur amino acid precursor. 
(Source of information: Dr Dirk Enneking, http://barley.ipk-gatersleben.de)
PLANTING
Soil: vetch/grass pea adapts to a wide range, including poor, infertile soils and heavy
clays. The plants tolerate waterlogging better than other food legumes but they do
not grow well in acidic soils. Fertiliser is not normally applied to the crop.
Intercropping: very common, for example with rice, barley, linseed and chickpeas.
Seed spacing: normally broadcast. When drilled, 2.5 cm between plants, 30…50 cm
between rows.
Seed rate: 45…55 kg/ha pure stand, 20…40 kg/ha when intercropped.
Inoculation: not normally necessary, nor worthwhile.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: 120…180 days. The plants are either cut with a sickle or uprooted,
and then dried, as soon as the pods turn yellow - delayed harvest leads to a big seed
loss from shattering.
Temperature: the optimum is 10…25°C„in India, for example, it is considered to
be a cold weather cropŽ.
Rainfall: very drought resistant. 380…650 mm a year is usually enough, though it
also tolerates heavy rainfall. 
Altitude: in India vetch/grass pea is grown from sea level up to about 1200 m.
Pests: not normally a problem. Red-legged mites and aphids sometimes cause some
damage.
Diseases: in India, mildews, rust and wilt are reported to cause some damage. Some
wilt resistant varieties are available.
YIELD
The average seed yield of the grass pea in India is about 250…450 kg/ha. 
 In a pure stand, and in good conditions and with efficient cultivation it can yield
one MT/ha or more. 
 Yields of forage (hayŽ) in a pure stand also average just over one MT/ha.



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188TONY WINCH
UTILISATION
€Seed„mainly for human food, especially in times of famine. It is either boiled
and eaten as a pulse, or split and used as dhal, or ground into flour to make
chapattis, paste balls and curries. It can be mixed with other more valuable
pulses such as chickpeas or pigeon peas. The seed is also used as animal and
poultry food and in homeopathic medicine.
€The leaves and immature pods can be boiled and eaten as a vegetable.
€Whole plant„either grazed, or cut and carried to animals. Hay can be made
from it, but not silage. Fresh young plants are harmful to horses, but not to
sheep, cattle or rabbits.
€Green manure„at a seed rate of about 65 kg/ha; about the same amount of
Nitrogen is sometimes applied.
€Catch crop„between rice crops, both as a grain crop and for fodder.
LIMITATIONS
€Yields of vetch/grass pea are normally low.
€The seed is very deficient in methionine and tryptophan - see the first two pages
of this section on the vetch/grass pea.
€The long, straggling plants can become a weed, in barley for example.
€Lathyrism (paralysis of the lower limbs) is a potential danger when the grain is
eaten for prolonged periods„see the first two pages of this section on the
vetch/grass pea.
2C. OILSEED CROPS
About 90% of the oil derived from plants comes from only ten or twelve crop
species, though about two hundred other crops contain usable amounts of oil and are
used locally. Crops such as soybean, maize and cotton are important sources of
vegetable oil, though because their oil is a by-product they are often not regarded as
being true oilseed crops. The term oilseedŽ is used to describe what are in fact
either fruits (such as olive and sunflower) or seeds (such as rape and soybean). The
importance of oilseed crops is likely to increase as non-renewable sources of mineral
oils become exhausted, unavailable and/or increase in price.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK189
 The seed or grain of oilseed crops contains about 20…50% oil, up to about 70%,
which is extracted either by physical pressure or by solvent extraction„normally
using hexane„or a combination of both methods. The oil is mainly used for making
cooking fats and margarines, though linseed and castor oil are not edible and so are
mainly used in industry.
 Most vegetable oils are unstable, and the glycerides in the oil break down after
some time, making the oil rancid. Three types of oil are extracted from plants:
€Non-drying, where the oil is mainly glycerides of saturated acids, and which
remains a liquid and does not form a surface film when exposed to air.
Examples include castor, grape, groundnut, olive and oil palm.
€Drying, which can form an elastic film when in contact with air, and which
have glycerides of the unsaturated type. Examples include linseed, safflower,
soybean and tung (Vernicia fordii). Safflower and soybean are sometimes
classified as semi-dryingŽ.
€Semi-drying, which together with drying oils are important in industry, for the
production of paint, varnish, soap, detergent, etc. Examples include cottonseed,
Niger seed, maize and sunflower.
Average Oil Yields
Yields of oil vary enormously, but palm-oil is generally considered to be the highest
yielder, and sesame the lowest. Approximate average yields, in kg/ha, are as
follows: palm-oil 1000, safflower 500, groundnut 270, sunflower 225, olive and
soybean 200, sesame 150.
Minor Oil Crops
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius). Widely grown in parts of North and South
Africa, India, China, North America, Canada and Australia. Almost 70% of global
production is grown in North America. Produces a drying or semi-drying oil; some
types are rich in linoleic (polyunsaturated) acid, others are rich in oleic acid
(monounsaturated).
Tung/Mu-Tree/Noix dabrasin (Aleurites montana). A perennial tree grown in
China, Paraguay, Argentina and Malawi. Produces a drying oil.
Buffalo Gourd (Cucurbita foetidissima)„described in 2G, page 273.
Jojoba/Goat Nut (Simmondsia chinensis). A drought resistant evergreen shrub
0.5  …1.5 m tall that produces beans with about 40% oil that is highly valued in industry,
similar to sperm whale oil, which withstands extreme pressure.
Other oilseed crops include rape, cotton, olive and coconut.



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190TONY WINCH
Oilcake
Also known as presscake, pomace or oilmeal, oilcake is the material that remains
after the oil has been extracted from the seed. With physical pressing systems, up to
10% of oil may remain in the oilcake. Oilcake is often used as animal food, and is a
valuable source of oil, protein (up to 50%) and other nutrients. 
  Groun dnut oilcake may contain aflatoxins and so is potentially toxic, and rape
seed oilcake may contain glucosinolates (responsible for the bitter or sharp taste of
many common foods such as mustard, cabbage, horseradish and brussel sprouts).
 Oilcake can be used as fertiliser, though this normally has little influence on soil
condition due to the small quantities applied.
Castor
Ricinus communis
Mole Bean, Castor Bean, Castor Oil Plant, Palma Christi; 
Ricin (French); Rizinus (German); Rícino, Mamona, Mamoneira(o) (Portuguese);
Palma Christic, Ricino, Tartago, Higuerilla (Spanish); Khirwa (Arabic); Arand, Rehri
(Hindi); Gulo (Amharic), Kobo (Oromifa)„Ethiopia; Olomolo, Mono (Angola)
Castor oil, a member of the spurge family Euphorbiaceae, was used by the ancient
Egyptians as an illuminant. It was popular in medicine in the modern world up to the
20th century, principally as a purgative, and nowadays it is used mainly in industry
and to some extent in the home. The oil is non-drying and has unique physical and
chemical properties, such as its viscosity which does not change with temperature.
 The wild plants and older varieties are short-lived perennial trees up to 12 m tall,
while most varieties cultivated these days are annual herbs 1…7 m tall. The majority
of these modern varieties, including hybrids, are dwarf types no more than 3m tall. 
  These days castor is mainly grown for the oil, used in the plastic and synthetic
fibre industry, and for production of synthetic aircraft lubricants for high speed
engines. It is also used as a solvent, in paints and varnishes, lino, oilcloth, ink and in
the treatment of leather and textile dyes. The traditional method of oil extraction is
to boil the crushed seed in water and then skim off the oil that floats to the surface.
 The seeds are poisonous due to their highly toxic blood coagulant called ricin
and a powerful allergen, a protein polysaccharide. Ricin is a lectin, and is used in
certain experimental cancer therapies. Eating just one seed can make you feel
nauseous; eating several can be fatal. The ricin and the allergen are removed from
the oil if it is extracted properly, but they remain in the oilcake or residue. As a
result this oilcake, the castor pomace, is normally used as fertiliser, though there are
methods of detoxicating the meal so that it can be fed to livestock. The leaves and
stems contain smaller amounts of ricin and should not be fed to animals. 
 The crop needs plenty of heat and is grown in the hot regions of Asia, India,
Brazil, Africa, North America, the Mediterranean, China and Russia. About one third



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK191
is produced in Latin America and more than half in Brazil and India. Global
production in 2004 was 1.3 million MT, according to FAO.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed, normally planted directly into the final growing place.
Soil: should be deep and well drained and without compact layers or hard pans as
castor is intolerant of waterlogging. Moderately susceptible to salinity, the giant
varieties being more tolerant than the dwarf types. 
The plant is a heavy feeder, and needs relatively high fertiliser use, typical
applications being, in kg/ha 25…50N, 50…70P and 40…50K. Too much Nitrogen
causes an overproduction of vegetative growth and lower yields of seed.
Seed rate: 10…20 kg/ha. Seed dressing is often used to combat damping off and
insects.
Seed spacing: very variable, but modern varieties normally have 70…100 cm
between rows and 25…30 cm between plants. Dwarf varieties are planted at about
40,000 plants/ha. Often 2…4 seeds are planted at each station and thinned to single
plants when about 30 cm tall. Seed size varies from about 1000 to 11,000 seeds
per kg.
Depth: 3 … 8 cm
Germination: castor seed is quite delicate and should be handled carefully.
Undamaged seed can remain viable for 2…3 years. It will germinate at a lower soil
temperature than maize, but only slowly, and emergence may take ten days or more.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: castor is a mainly day-neutral species, with some long-day varieties.
Growth period: the average is 140…180 days for most tall varieties, minimum about
120 days, for dwarf varieties. Basically it is a short lived perennial.
Temperature: castor is killed by frost. Optimum growing temperature is 20…30°C.
Seed set can be reduced above about 40°C.
Rainfall: castor is moderately drought resistant and can grow with only 300…500
mm a year, although it does need more water than maize in the early growth stages.
Perennial varieties need less water than annuals. It does not tolerate heavy rainfall
during flowering, nor waterlogging. It is grown under irrigation in North America.
Altitude: 0…2100 m
Weeds: should be well controlled until the plants are about 80 cm tall, taking care
not to damage the plants root system which is near to the surface.
Rotation: it is often rotated with finger millet (Eleusine coracana). If forage crops
are grown after castor, care should be taken to remove any volunteer castor plants.
The root system improves soil tilth and in this way is beneficial to the crops that
follow castor in the rotation, though the plant does remove large amounts of
nutrients from the soil (See SoilŽ above).
Intercropping: commonly grown mixed with legumes, maize, sorghum, cotton,
sesame, groundnuts and cassava.
Pests: a large number of insects attack castor, which is not toxic to them, but
damage is not normally severe. Some varieties have some resistance (tolerance) to
some insects.



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192TONY WINCH
Diseases: also not normally a big problem, though Alternaria Leaf Spot may cause
the leaves to fall off in humid conditions. Other diseases include Bacterial Leaf Spot,
Cotton Root Rot (in cold, wet soils), Rust and Grey Mould (in warm, humid
conditions). Modern varieties have partial resistance to some diseases.
YIELD
The average for annual varieties of castor in dryland conditions varies from about
500 kg/ha in India and Africa to 1700 kg/ha in France. Irrigated castor should yield
2.5…3 MT/ha; some hybrid dwarf varieties can produce 5 MT/ha and more. 
 The FAO estimate for the global average seed yield in 2004 was 1.07 MT/ha,
from a maximum of 1.24 MT/ha in India to a minimum of 231 kg/ha in Kenya.
 Perennial castor varieties are not normally grown in pure stands but are widely
spaced all over the farm, either alone or as part of a mixed cropping system.
UTILISATION
€The seed or beanŽ contains 35…60% of a highly valued non-drying oil.
Traditionally this has been used as a medicine, for lighting and for the curing of
hides and skins. 
€The seed can be crushed and used to spread on enjera plates before cooking, in
Ethiopia and places where Ethiopians eat together.
€The castor pomace presscake is used mainly as a fertiliser, or as animal food.
€an insecticide is extracted from the leaves.
€The plants can be used as a shade crop, to protect coffee bushes for example.
€They are also used in landscaping for their attractive giant, twelve-lobed,
fanlike leaves.
LIMITATIONS
€The castor plant is a heavy feeder which depletes the soil of large amounts of
nutrients.
€Ricin and an allergen are toxic substances present in the seed, leaves and
stems and can be dangerous to animals (and humans) which eat them. These
substances must also be removed from the oilcake before it is safe to be eaten
by animals.
€The plant requires hot conditions and it is sensitive to frost.
€The seed clusters mature unevenly, so that two or more harvests must be made
if it is harvested manually. With mechanical harvesting, some of the seed is too
green and some will have shattered from mature pods, creating unwanted
volunteers the next season.
€Low yields combined with low prices often discourage farmers to cultivate
castor.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK193
Linseed
Linum usitatissimum
Flax, Flaxseed, Oil-flax; 
Graine de Lin (French); Flachs, Saatlein, Leinsamen (German); 
Lino„flax, Linaza„linseed (Spanish); Linho, Linhaça (Portuguese); Lino usuale
(Italian); 
Alsi (Hindi); Sharkhal (Dari); Entateh (Tigrinha); Talba (Ethiopia); Kathân, Malsag
(Arabic); Yama (Chinese); Tisii (Nepalese); Aliviraaii / Alivira (Tamil); 
Keten (Turkish)
Linseed, or flaxseed, is a dual-purpose crop which is grown both for its oil and its
fibre (or flaxŽ). Traditionally, oil has been the normal product in hot, dry regions
and fibre in the more humid, temperate regions. However, in more recent years large
areas of oil varieties are planted in temperate areas such as Argentina, Canada and
northern Europe. Varieties are developed to produce either oil or fibre, but not both. 
 It is one of mans earliest crops and was grown for fibre in southern Asia and the
Mediterranean by about 1000 BC. Linseed oil was used in ancient rituals in India.
 The plant is an annual, 30…120 cm tall; oilseed varieties have shorter plants with
many branches and seeds, fibre varieties are taller with few or no branches and
fewer seeds. 
 The flowers are white, blue or rose-coloured and are mainly self-pollinated,
though some varieties have a high rate of cross-pollination. Most temperate, oil-
producing varieties are blue flowered, and fibre varieties are often white flowered.
 Linseeds main advantages are the low input requirement, the short growing
season and the fact that it makes a very good entry crop for wheat.
  The oil is classified as dryingŽ because it thickens and becomes hard on
exposure to air. It is slightly more viscous than other vegetable oils and is good
source of dietary fibre and omega-3 fatty acid. Like most vegetable oils, linseed oil
contains linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid needed for survival. But unlike most
oils, it also contains significant amounts of another essential fatty acid, alpha
linolenic acid (ALA).
 The major linseed oil producers are India, North America, Argentina, Canada,
Russia and Uruguay. Global production in 2004 was 1.9 million MT (FAO
estimate).
 Up to the turn of this century, linseed oil production was highly subsidised in
northern Europe, stimulating increased levels of production. Fibre production from
linseed is mainly in Russia, Poland, Belgium, France and Holland.
PLANTING
Rotation: linseed is considered to be a very good entry crop for wheat.
Soil: medium to heavy soils are best. The linseed plant has a short root system and
so needs good soil moisture in the upper soil horizon. It is moderately susceptible to
salinity. Fertiliser is not always used as the plant either does not respond or has an
unpredictable response.



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194TONY WINCH
Seed rate: average figures are 40 kg/ha for oil varieties, 120 kg/ha for fibre
varieties. However in order to achieve the optimum plant population in oil crops
these may use 80…100 kg/ha. 1000 seeds weigh about 3…4 g for fibre varieties, 7 g for
oil varieties.
Seed spacing: 1000…1300 seeds per square metre are sown, in rows 15 cm apart for
oil crops, closer together for fibre crops.
Depth: 2…2.5 cm, in a fine seedbed.
Germination: seed can remain viable for 5…10 years if stored dry and cool.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: there are both long-day and day-neutral varieties of linseed.
Growth period: 120…150 days.
Temperature: linseed is a cool weather crop, and is sown in late autumn in regions
with mild winters and hot summers. Seedlings may be killed by a heavy frost, which
also reduces yields if it occurs at flowering. During and after flowering, about 32°C
is the maximum. Seed of linseed should be stored at less than 10% moisture.
Rainfall: oil varieties can grow with only 300 mm, but are normally grown in 450…
750 mm/year rainfall areas, or with irrigation. Fibre varieties need more water than
oil ones.
Rotation: should not be grown on the same land more often than every five or six
years. In a rotation, linseed can substitute for cereals, such as after legumes or
pasture. If weeds can be controlled it is a good first pioneerŽ crop on newly cleared
land.
Pests: rarely a problem, but yields are sometimes reduced by grasshoppers,
cutworms, armyworms, chinch bugs, stinkbugs and flaxworms.
… Flax Fleabeetle„this can completely decimate the crop, as the seedlings are just
emerging. Control is with seed dressings, insecticide and/or later (warmer) planting
for more rapid seedling emergence.
Diseases: three of the most troublesome, all caused by fungi, are:
… Flax Wilt„stems of young plants turn brown and dry up, normally in small areas
all over the field, or on individual plants. Worse when linseed has been grown for a
long time on the same land. Control: crop rotation, but as spores can remain viable
in the soil for 25 years it is better to use resistant varieties.
… Flax Rust„bright orange or red spots appear on all aerial parts just before
flowering which become black and shiny. Worse in wet conditions. Control is with
seed dressings, crop rotation, or, best of all, resistant varieties, though these may not
resist all races of the fungus.
… Pasmo„leaves have dark brown patches which then spread to the stem where the
patches are brown or black. Occurs above about 20°C, spread by rain. Control: clean
seed (treatment is not effective), destroy infected plants, crop rotation and resistant
varieties.
… Botrytis, Mildew, Alternaria and Sclerotinia (see Horse Bean) can also be
damaging.
 There are also two virus diseases„Aster Yellows and Curly Top - both are
transmitted by leafhoppers, which can cause some loss of yield.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK195
YIELD
Linseed crops raised for oil are normally harvested when most of the seed capsules
are mature. The stalks are very tough and fibrous and need sharp knives to cut them. 
 The average yield globally was estimated by FAO at 726 kg/ha in 2004, Tunisia
recording the highest average of 2.14 MT/ha, and Latvia the lowest average of 259
kg/ha.
UTILISATION
€Seed„contains 30…45% of a drying oil and 20…25% protein. The seed is hard
and must be either crushed or softened by soaking and boiling before feeding to
animals„it is used as a concentrated energy feed for ruminants and pigs. 
€Linseed oil is not palatable and is mainly used in the production of paints,
varnishes, lino, oilcloth, printing inks, artists oil paints, soaps and patent
leather.
€Linseed cake - this is often ground up to make linseed cake meal, used as animal
food it gives them a nice shiny coat, or bloomŽ. Linseed mealŽ is the crushed,
unextracted seed and contains about 35%,10% or 3% oil depending on the
source of the mealŽ: ground, unextracted seed, ground linseed cake, or meal
from the extraction process, respectively. Linseed cake is toxic to poultry,
unless it makes up less than about 3% of their meal. Toxicity (linamarin) can be
removed (detoxicated) by soaking the meal in water for 24 hours, or by adding
pyridoxin, a B-vitamin, to the meal.
€Straw„this is comparable to wheat or oat straw in feeding value but is not very
palatable.
€Fibre„stronger than cotton or wool, and with other special qualities which
make it suitable for linen, thread, towels, clothing, fabrics, cigarettes, Bible
pages, currency, etc.
LIMITATIONS
€Linseed plants compete very poorly with weeds, so it is often planted late, after
the first weeds have been destroyed. It is, however, very tolerant of most
herbicides.
€The seedbed must be fine and have adequate soil moisture in the upper horizon;
€Yields are rather low.
€Prussic acid. Immature linseed contains the glucoside linamarin which may be
released under warm, acidic conditions. This can be toxic to animals, but is
destroyed by heat„ten minutes boiling makes the feed safe.
€There should be long breaks„five or six years„between linseed crops in the
rotation.



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196TONY WINCH
Niger Seed
Guizotia abyssinica
Inga Seed, Blackseed, 
Guizotia Oléifere (French); Gingellikraut (German); Alashi (Oriya); 
Hechellu (Kannada); Karale (Marathi); Neehoog/Neuk (Tigrinya); Noug (Amharic);
Payellu (Tamil); Ramtil (Hindi and Panjabi); Sarguza (Bengali); Sorguja (Assamese)
Niger seed originated in Ethiopia, where it is now mainly cultivated, on
approximately 250,000 Ha. It is also grown in marginal areas in India, and to some
extent in East Africa and the West Indies. It is the most important edible oil crop in
Ethiopia, supplying about half of their oilseed production. 
 It is a member of the Asteraceae (alt Compositeae) family. It is a short-day plant,
an annual, 1…3 m tall (up to 15 m), which is frost tolerant, drought resistant and
adapted to a wide range of soils. There are three main types: dwarf, semi-dwarf and
giant. 
 It is propagated by seed, which is about 3.5…5 mm long, contains 30…50% of a
yellow semi-drying oil with a pleasant taste, and a protein content of about 20%.
The oil from Ethiopian crops contains about 70% linoleic acid, while oil from crops
grown in India contains about 50%.
 For farmers, it is much kinder plant to grow than safflower, as the plants do not
have spines, and harvesting could be mechanised. More research is needed on this
potentially useful source of edible plant oil.
 Detailed information is available online from the publications department of the
Plant Genetic Resources Institute.
PLANTING
Propagation: Niger is self-sterile and needs bees for cross-pollination.
Soil: Niger seed grows well in poor soils, if they are neither very acidic (it is
classified as sensitiveŽ to soil acidity) nor waterlogged. Ph range 5.5…7.5. In fertile
soils the plants may lodge (fall over) and have a prolonged growth period. It is not
normally fertilised though it does normally respond to both fertilisers and manure.
Seed rate: 5…8 kg/ha in rows 440…5°C m apart, 8…12 kg/ha when broadcast (when
NPK fertiliser is often broadcast together with the seed, then harrowed into the soil).
Seed spacing: normally broadcast, sometimes in rows 35-50 cm apart.
Depth: covered with light harrows when broadcast, otherwise about 1 cm deep in a
fine tilth.
Germination: the seed can be stored for a year or more without losing much
viability.
Intercropping: commonly done, with finger millet (ragi), cereals, legumes and
other annuals.
Rotation: works well with wheat and/or maize.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: intermediate response, varies with type, but most are short-day (do not
flower or set seed until daylight hours average 13 hours or less).



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK197
Growth period: 100…150 days.
Temperature: very frost tolerant. Semi-dwarf types are adapted to temperate
climates.
Rainfall: about 600…1800 mm a year for all types. Dwarf types are more drought
resistant.
Altitude: the optimum is around 2000…2200 m, but it can be cultivated from about
1600…2600 m.
Pests and diseases: rarely a problem; locusts, grasshoppers and armyworms
sometimes attack.
YIELD
When intercropped with finger millet in India Niger seed yields about 100…200
kg/ha. Pure stand yields have been recorded in both India and Ethiopia of about
300…400 kg/ha, 400…600 kg/ha in Kenya. 1.2 MT/ha is possible with good growing
conditions.
 Oil yields are 30…50% of dried seed yield.
UTILISATION
€Seeds of Niger seed are crushed, giving about 30% of a clear, edible semi-
drying oil which is yellow in colour and tastes of nuts. Seeds can also be used
fried or as chutneys and condiments, or fed to caged birds. In Ethiopia they are
pressed with honey and made into cakes.
€Oil is used for cooking, for making soap and for lighting; some is used in
making paints. It is used as a substitute for olive oil, can be mixed with linseed
oil, and is commonly used as a (less expensive) adulterant for rape oil, sesame
oil, etc.
€Whole plant can be used to attract bees, and also as a green manure (before
flowering).
€Presscake is used as a high protein (30…35%) food for animals, especially
cattle. This black oilcake is comparable in feeding value to undecorticated
groundnut cake. Up to 30% can be added to laying poultry rations. It is
sometimes used as manure and/or soil improver. 
LIMITATIONS
€Yields are rather modest.
€There is a shortage of improved varieties and of large quantities of good quality
seed.
€The growing crop needs a well prepared seedbed, with very few or no weeds.
€The seeds are very small, and it is more difficult for subsistence farmers to
extract oil from Niger seed than from other oilseed crops.



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198TONY WINCH
Sesame
Sesamum indicum (Syn. S.orientale)
Simsim, Benne, Benné, Benniseed, Til, Gingili, Gingelly (from Hindi jingali)
Sésame (French); Sesam (German); Sésamo, Ajonjoli (Spanish); Sésamo, Gergelim
(Portuguese); Simsim (Arabic); Til (India); Gingelly (Sri Lanka); Sillit, Simsim
(Ethiopia); Utolo* (Umbundu, Angola); Kunzeleh (Pashtu)
*Also used for sunflower.
Sesame has been cultivated since the earliest days of agriculture in the hot, dry parts
of Africa, from where it was taken to India, China, Burma, the Mediterranean, India,
Mexico and the Far East. These days it is grown throughout the tropics and
subtropics. There are thousands of different varieties, some of which are very
specific to a small area or soil type.
 It is an annual plant, 50…250 cm tall, with a taproot and a dense surface mat of
feeding roots which improves soil structure. Seed colour may be white, yellow, grey,
red, brown or black. 
 It is very resistant to both heat and drought. Perhaps it is because of its rather low
yields that in global terms it is only about the ninth most important of the vegetable
oil crops. The FAO estimate of global production in 2004 was 3.3 million MT.
 The main producer countries are India, China, Sudan, Mexico, Venezuela,
Burma and Ethiopia. About half of all the sesame produced is grown in Asia.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed. Mainly self-pollinated, but some limited cross-pollination, no
more than about 5%, may occur.
Soil: sesame can often grow well on certain poor soils, but prefers deep draining
soils like sandy loams. Very intolerant of waterlogging. Fertiliser is generally not
used, though improved varieties do respond to fertiliser; a typical application is 200…
300 kg/ha of 15:15:15. It grows well on the same soil types that produce good
sorghum crops, but it is more sensitive to salinity than sorghum.
Rotation: it is a good crop to grow before wheat, or after an irrigated crop.
Intercropping: in India it is often grown mixed with cotton, maize, sorghum, millet
or groundnuts. In Africa it is often intercropped with maize or sorghum.
Seed rate: 10…15 kg/ha. 1000 seeds weigh 3…5 g. 
Seed spacing: not very critical, as sesame plants compensate well - ie they tend to
grow to the size of the land area and light available. It is normally not sown in rows,
but the seed is broadcastŽ. When it is sown mechanically, 40…100 cm between rows
and 10…30 cm between plants, depending on available soil water and the variety
chosen.
Depth: 2…4 cm



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK199
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: in general sesame is very sensitive to photoperiod. There are both long-
and short-day varieties, and even a few day-neutral varieties, such as Venezuela
51Ž.
Growth period: 70…160 days, mainly depending on the variety - the average is
about 105 days. The pods and seed mature from the bottom of the plant upwards;
harvest should be timed to start when most of the lower pods have turned from green
to yellow. If harvest is delayed, the mature pods dehisce and some of the seed is lost
on the ground.
Temperature: the crop needs hot weather, and can tolerate very high temperatures,
about 27°C is optimum. The plant is frost sensitive. For germination soil
temperature should be about 20°C.
Rainfall: moderately drought resistant; it is extremely sensitive to excess soil water,
and so is normally only grown in low rainfall areas, around 350…1100 mm per year.
Some early varieties in retentive soils can produce a crop with stored soil moisture
alone. Heavy rainfall soon after sowing can lead to losses from soil capping and the
seeds being swept away or buried too deep.
Grows poorly in high rainfall, when Botrytis tends to develop, causing the heads to
drop off.
Altitude: 0…1500 m
Pests: six of the insects which commonly cause some damage to sesame plants are:
… Til Leaf-Roller„specific to sesame. Larvae feed on the leaves and bore into the
stem and pods, killing plants at the seedling stage.
… Tobacco Capsid„brownish yellow insects that suck the plant sap.
… Sesame Gall Fly„larvae feed on young flower buds, causing them to form galls
which fall off.
… Aphids„transmit various virus diseases.
… Common Red Spider„a small 8-legged mite. Larvae cover the undersides of
leaves with a fine webbing and suck their sap; leaves become brittle and fall off.
… Spheraylia sesami„larvae eat the flowers.
Diseases: humid conditions favour the spread of most of these:
… Leaf Curl„a virus transmitted by the White Fly. The leaves curl downwards, and
become thick, brittle and dark green. Weekly pesticide sprays may be needed to
stop it.
… Phyllody„a virus transmitted by a jassid. Plants develop abnormal vegetative
growth, and the floral parts are transformed into green, leafy structures. The plants
become so heavy that they bend over. Resistant varieties are the best cure.
… Leaf Spot„appears at flowering time, producing spots on the leaves, which fall
off early. Can be controlled with hot water treatment of seed. Destroy all infected
plants.
… Fusarium Wilt„leaves turn yellow, and wilt, and the plant eventually dies. A
brown discolouration is seen when a transection is cut through the plant, which
spreads from the roots upwards. Controlled by using resistant varieties and clean
seed.
… Root and Stem Rot„caused by fungi. A dark discolouration appears at the base
of the stem, which may break off at ground level, and the roots may become rotten.
Control with clean seed.



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200TONY WINCH
YIELD
Sesame yields are generally low, although it should be noted that sesame is very
often grown under the most marginal conditions. Dryland crops rarely yield more
than one MT/ha, and average irrigated crop yields are less than two tonne/ha. In
many dry, infertile areas yields average 200…300 kg/ha. 
 FAOs estimate of global average yield for 2004 was 489 kg/ha, the highest
average being recorded in Lebanon (3.13 MT/ha), and the lowest in Cameroon
(138 kg/ha).
 One major problem with sesame is that most varieties are dehiscentŽ - their seed
pods open when they are mature (they are said to shatterŽ) and the seed falls to the
ground and is lost. However the pods are carried nearly upright on the stem so that if
the plants themselves are also kept upright after harvest only a few seeds are lost. If
the plants bend or fall over, or if they are not carried upright and handled carefully
before threshing, large yield loss can occur. 
 Unfortunately the non-dehiscentŽ varieties that are currently being developed
often have lower yields and may be difficult to thresh. Clearly, the yield of oil is also
low.
UTILISATION
€Grain„a valuable food, containing 20…25% protein, normally made into
halvah, stews, soups, porridges or sweets, or sprinkled onto bread, cakes, etc.
€Oil„the grain contains 45…60% of a highly unsaturated oil, which is very stable
and does not turn rancid or smell bad due to the presence of phenolic material. It
is mainly used for cooking, and also for making perfumes and medicines.
Sesamin is extracted from the oil and is added to the natural insecticide
Pyrethrum to increase its effectiveness. In India the oil is used for lighting. The
presscake (oilcake) is valued as animal food.
€Young leaves„sometimes included in soups and stews.
€Whole plant„in India the plant has several interesting medicinal uses.
LIMITATIONS
€Dehiscent, or shattering, seed pods (hence the expression Open sesame!Ž)
mean that much of the seed is often left in the field. The non-dehiscent varieties
tend to have lower yields and may be difficult to thresh.
€Sesame has a reputation for producing low yields, though this is not altogether
surprising as it is often grown in the most marginal conditions.
€It is sensitive to excessive soil water and frost, and needs plenty of heat for oil
production.
€The seedlings are weak, and susceptible to attack by many pests and diseases;
they also need to be well weeded.
€A very fine seedbed must be prepared, which must have adequate moisture and a
minimum soil temperature of about 20°C. A soil crust, or capŽ, hinders
seedling emergence.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK201
Sunflower
Helianthus annuus
Tournesol, Soleil (French); Sonnenblume (German); Girasol (Spanish & Portuguese);
Mant (Latin America); Abbad ash-shams (Arabic);
Surajmukhi, Suryamukhi (Hindi); Elmer Mekhay (Pashtu); Farenji Suf (Ethiopia);
Utolo (Angola„UtoloŽ is also used to describe sesame)
Both the sunflower and its close relative the Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus
tuberosum) are native to temperate America, either Peru or Mexico, and were used
by the Indians as food plants; their seeds have been found in an archaeological site
dated 2000…3000 years old. These days sunflowers are grown widely, from the
equator to as far North as 55°N.
 The plant is an annual, a member of the Asteraceae (Compositae) family, and
boasts a massive tap root that can penetrate down to 3 metres. 
 There are three main types: Giant (1.8…4.2 m tall), Semi-dwarf (1.35…1.8 m tall)
and Dwarf (0.6…1.35 m tall). The giant types are generally late maturing and have
low oil content. The dwarf types have the highest oil content, more than 50% with
improved varieties. 
 The oil is classified as being semi-dryingŽ, polyunsaturated with a high
percentage of linoleic acid. Protein content of the grain varies from about 13 to 27%.
 Both the leaves and flower heads are heliotropic ie they respond to the direction
of the suns movements.
 The flowers are pollinated by insects and there should be plenty of bees and
other insects at flowering time in order to set seed properly. 
 Many of the cultivated plants do not grow true from seed and will eventually
revert back to the wild type plants after a few generations. 
 Sunflowers are one of the most important oil crops, and according to FAO were
grown on 21 million hectares throughout the world in 2004. They are widely grown
in Russia, and in Rumania, Bulgaria, China, France, USA, Canada and South
America, particularly Argentina. FAO estimated a global production of 26.1 million
MT in 2004.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed. Only grains that are full and fat should be used as seed,
which can remain viable for several years if it is carefully dried and stored. 
Sunflowers can be grafted onto their close relative the perennial Jerusalem
artichoke, Helianthus tuberosum.
Soil: sunflowers can grow on most soils and need less fertile conditions than maize.
The plants are fairly salt tolerant, but will not survive in either very acid soil (they
have intermediate toleranceŽ to acidity) or waterlogged soil. 
The crop responds well to phosphatic fertilisers, but high nitrogen levels should
generally be avoided.
Seed rate: 4.5…15 kg/ha for grain, 35…40 kg/ha for silage. There are about 6000…
20,000 seeds per kg.



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202TONY WINCH
Seed spacing: 60…100 cm between rows, 15…30 cm between plants. The normal
plant population is about two or three plants per square metre.
Depth: 2…4 cm
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: day-neutral.
Growth period: the average is 125…160 days. Some dwarf varieties can mature in
45 days.
Temperature: sunflowers are fairly resistant to both heat and cold, and are not
damaged by mildly freezing temperatures that would kill maize or soybean. For
germination the soil temperature need only be about 8…10°C, much cooler than that
needed for maize or sorghum.
Rainfall: sunflowers are fairly drought resistant, and some varieties need only 400
mm if this is well distributed through the growing season.
Altitude: lowlands and medium altitudes are preferable.
Rotation: to avoid root rots sunflowers should not be grown on the same land more
often than every four years, nor should they follow peas, beets or potatoes.
Pests: not normally a serious problem, though cutworms, wireworms, grasshoppers,
aphids, weevils and other insects do feed on sunflower plants. Often the worst
damage is caused by the Sunflower (Head) Moth, whose larvae attack the seed. 
The plant is also damaged by the Sunflower Leaf Beetle which feeds on the leaves,
and the Sunflower Maggot which tunnels into the stem. 
Sunflowers are also very susceptible to damage by birds and rodents.
Diseases: the three most important are:
… Rust„dark brown spots, which turn black, on the underside of leaves, which turn
yellow, dry up and fall off. Up to 50% yield loss can occur. Some varieties have
good resistance; crop rotations and dusting with sulphur also limit this disease.
… Grey Mould„worst in warm, humid conditions. Infects both the leaves and the
ripening seed head.
… Stem Rot (Wilt)„caused by Sclerotonia sclerotiorum.
Other diseases include Powdery and Downy Mildews, White Rust, Verticillium
Wilt, Charcoal Rot and Black Rot. Virus diseases are also sometimes seen.
YIELD
The global average sunflower yield in 2004 was 1.22 MT/ha, according to FAO. In
that year, the highest national average was recorded in Austria, at 2.69 MT/ha, and
the lowest average in Zimbabwe, at 308 kg/ha.
 Giant sunflower varieties yield more seed per hectare than dwarf varieties, but
their seed normally contains a lower percentage of oil. 
 A typical yield of oil is around 225 kg/ha.



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UTILISATION
€90% of sunflower grain produced is crushed for oil„the nutritive value equals
that of olive oil. It is used for margarine, cooking oil and in industry for soaps,
lubricants, paints, varnishes and cosmetics. Modern varieties produce grains
with 50% oil and more.
€In many countries they are grown mainly for human food, either raw or
roasted.
€Whole grains are used as a high protein (13…27%) poultry food.
€The leaves by themselves make good silage, but silage that is made from the
entire plants is less nutritive and palatable than silage made from maize.
€The presscake, or oilcake, is a useful animal food, containing 30…40% protein; it
is also sometimes used as fertiliser.
€The stalks are used for pulp in the paper industry, and as a source of cellulose.
When they are shredded and incorporated into the soil they improve soil
fertility, mainly Nitrogen, Calcium and Potassium, as well as increasing the
organic matter content.
€The flowers are used to produce a yellow dye.
€Honey is often produced as a by-product. Bees are the best pollinators of
sunflowers, so beehives are often placed in sunflower fields.
€The dried heads can be used for animal food, containing about 9% protein and
3% oil.
€The crop is sometimes used as a green manure.
LIMITATIONS
There are relatively few problems growing sunflowers, which are hardy plants that
can adapt to a wide range of growing conditions. However:
€Uneven maturity of the grain makes the timing of harvest critical, and not easy
for the farmer to decide. While many of the seeds will be dry and starting to fall
out, others may still be at 50% moisture. 
€Loss of germination and/or damage by fungi can occur if the moisture
content of stored seed exceeds about 8…9%, especially in warm conditions.
€Damage by birds can be serious; a number of different diseases can also
reduce yields considerably.
€It may not always be possible to select, or obtain seed of, the appropriate
variety.



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204TONY WINCH
2D. ROOT CROPS
A wide range of species are commonly referred to as root cropsŽ, their common
feature being their fleshy, underground storage organs, which may be either a true
root, or a tuber or a corm„the difference between the various types of rootsŽ is
discussed in 1Eh, page 40.
R oot crops mainly contribute energy to the diet, being high in starches and sugars
but low in oil and protein. Some are eaten as vegetables, such as carrots, radish
and parsnips, and are more useful as sources of vitamins, flavour and subtle nut-
rients than as sources of energy. Other root crops such as sweet and Irish
potatoes, cassava and sugarbeet are more useful as sources of energy. The global
production of all root crops, including those for animal food, is only slightly less
than that of cereals, although in terms of dry nutrients the root crops are much less
important due to their high moisture content.
W ild species of many plants produce edible roots and rhizomes that can be
eaten in times of famine. Some species are known and eaten only in very limited
regions „ in the Peruvian Andes for example at least six species of root crops are
eaten which are hardly known in the rest of the world. Similarly, in Africa fra-fra
potatoesŽ (Coleus dysentericus), aroids (Araceae) and sedges (Cyperaceae)„see
below„are eaten only in certain relatively small regions. With some effort and
imagination these and other root crops could be introduced and promoted in many
parts of the world where there is a shortage of starch in the diet.
T he three most important root crops grown for food are the Irish potato, in
temperate climates, and the cassava (manioc) and sweet potato in tropical climates.
The other root crops described in this section are the taro and the yam.
Listed below are some of the minor root crops:
Anu (Mashua, Cubio, Quecha, Apina-mama or Ysano) Tropaeolum tuberosum
(Tropaeolaceae or nasturtium family). Looks very similar to Oca (see below) which
grows in the same area (high Andes). Hardy, climbing plants up to 2 m long.
Reddish flowers, 5-lobed leaves, similar to but smaller than the garden nasturtium.
Dry tubers contain about 14…16% protein, 80% carbohydrate, 9 microgramme/100 g
beta-carotene and about 480 mg Vitamin C/100 g.
Chufa (Tiger Nut) Cyperus esculentus (Cyperaceae or sedge family). Grown since
early Egyptian times they are now mainly grown in West Africa and Spain. The so-
called nutsŽ are small underground stem tubers, eaten either raw or roasted, which
contain about 24% fat, 30% starch, 4% protein and 16% sucrose. They are used also
to make certain non-alcoholic drinks.
Jerusalem Artichoke Helianthus tuberosus (Asteraceae/Compositae or daisy
family). Originated in North America, it was taken to Europe in the early 1600s. A
perennial herb with irregularly shaped underground stem tubers 5…20 cm long, with
white or red skin, eaten boiled, baked or in stews and soups. Contains fructose,
which is acceptable to diabetics as a substitute for glucose. The plants can grow to 3 m
high; in temperate climates it flowers only after a long warm summer.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK205
Oca Oxalis tuberosa (Oxalidaceae or wood sorrel family). White, yellow or red
smooth skinned cylindrical tubers about 10 cm long with grooves and bulges, with
long deep eyes. Staple food in high altitude parts of the South American Andes, also
cultivated in Mexico and New Zealand. The tubers are nutritionally equivalent to
potatoes, and they are both cooked in similar ways. Some varieties contain calcium
oxalate crystals, which can be removed by drying in the sun.
Ulluco Ullucus tuberosus (Basellaceae family). Endemic in the Andes, very frost
resistant. 2…15 cm long tubers are yellow or pale magenta, red or purple and either
small and round or long and curved. The fresh tubers contain about 14% starch and
sugars, 1…2% protein, 23 mg/100 g Vitamin C. Prepared and eaten like potatoes, or
dried and stored. The leaves are also eaten.
Cassava/Manioc
Manihot esculenta (Syn. M. utilissima, M. aipi, M. dulcis, M. palmata)
Brazilian Arrowroot, Cassata, Mandioc(a), Imanoka, Katela boodin, Maniba, Manioc,
Muk shue, Shushu, Yuca, Tapioca. Manioc (French); Manioc (German); YMCA
{Brava}, Mandioca, Guacomote (Spanish); Mandioca, Manioba, Aipim (Portuguese);
Utombo, Ombuta, Okambuta (Angola); Muhogo (Kiswahili); Omuwogo (Luganda);
Aypu, Boniato (Caribbean).
Cassava was probably first cultivated by the Maya in Yucatán, Mexico and is now
the most important of all the tropical root crops in terms of global production. FAO
estimated the global production in 2004 was 101 million MT. 
T he plant can grow in the poorest, most infertile soils, and many varieties
produce tubers that can remain in the ground for up to three years. Its root tubers
often serve as a famine reserve crop for subsistence farmers. Compared with other
tropical staple crops, only yams produce more carbohydrate per hectare. Raw tubers
contain about 35% starch but only about 1…3% protein.
T he plant is a short-lived perennial shrub, 1…5metres tall; it is normally
grown in the lowland tropics. Cassava is a member of the Euphorbiaceae (spurge)
family, which also includes the Castor oil plant (Ricinus communis) and the
Poinsetia.
R ecent research has involved managing cassava as a perennial forage crop,
repeatedly harvesting the leaves at 2…3 month intervals. The roots are not harvested
but serve as a nutrient reserve to support the forage regrowth.
 I ITA (the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture) in Ibadan,
Nigeria maintains a germplasm collection for Africa. IITA is one of 16 research
centres that come under the auspices of the CGIAR„the Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research. 
T he largest germplasm collection is at the International Centre for Tropical
Agriculture (CIAT), in Cali, Colombia, and the largest national collection is in
Brazil, under the direction of the Brazilian Agricultural Research Network
(EMBRAPA). All three institutions have breeding programmes.



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206TONY WINCH
T here are two main types of cassava„ sweet and bitter. Most varieties of both
types contain the glycoside linamarin which breaks down under enzyme action to
give the poison Hydrocyanic glucoside (HCN, hydrocyanic, or prussic, acid), a
cyanide producing sugar derivative:
Sweet types„HCN (potentially 30…100 mg HCN/kg) is present only in the two
outer layers of the tuber, which can be eaten raw after peeling. The tubers have a
soft, white flesh. They normally mature in about six months, and can then be left
stored in the ground for almost a year.
Bitter types„HCN (potentially 1350 mg HCN/kg) is present throughout the tuber,
which must be cut up and boiled, the HCN squeezed out, and then reboiled in clean
water; or it can be roasted or fermented. The tubers have a firm, yellow flesh which
normally mature in twelve months or more and can be left in the ground for up to
four years.
T he HCN content also varies with the soil type, for example increasing in soil
which is deficient in potash, and also with the climate. Changes in toxicity can also
occur when varieties are introduced from one country to another. Old, stale tubers
are more toxic than freshly harvested ones.
B oth types of cassava are virtually immune to attack by the African Migratory
Locust. The bitter types are also only rarely eaten by wild game such as baboons,
pigs, rats and hippos, and they are sometimes the only crop that can be cultivated
in areas with this problem.
PLANTING
Propagation: by stem cuttings, 20…30 cm long, often cut from the middle of the
parent stem to avoid Mosaic Virus which is often present on the lower parts. About
half the length is pushed into the soil, where it sprouts readily within about 7…14
days.
Soil: best on sandy or sandy loam soils, but cassava can grow almost anywhere if
the soil is not waterlogged, saline or too shallow or stony. Some cassava varieties
are adapted to dry areas with alkaline soil, others to acidic mud banks along rivers. 
I n heavy clays or very fertile soils, or with high Nitrogen levels, vegetative growth
can be excessive and at the expense of tuber growth. Potassium is the most important
element, although Nitrogen, and to some extent Phosphates, also normally produce a
good response. However fertiliser is rarely used on this crop.
Plant spacing: about 12,000 per hectare, 1…1.5 m apart. Sometimes two or more
stems are planted together, either on the flat or on ridges or mounds. They are sun-
loving plants.
Intercropping: very common, with a wide range of annual food crops. Legumes
such as peanuts are commonly used. Trials have shown that intercropping with trees
such as the acid tolerant leguminous shrub Flemingia macrophylla increases overall
yields per hectare, improves the soil fertility and provides fuel wood.
Rotation: since cassava can grow on exhausted soils which are unsuitable for many
other food crops, it is often grown at the end of a long period of monocropping
(monoculture), or as the last crop planted in shifting farming systems.



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GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: 6…12 months for short-season sweet types and improved varieties.
Long-season types are often left in the ground for one or more years. Both types are
normally harvested as and when required for eating.
Temperature: the optimum is about 25…30°C. Intolerant of frost and cold weather.
Rainfall: 1000…2000 mm per year is optimum, but cassava can grow with 500 mm
or less. It can withstand long periods of drought, except at planting time.
Altitude: cassava is basically a lowland crop, though it is grown up to 1600 m near
the equator and up to 1000 m in the humid tropics.
Pests: not usually a big problem, but sometimes one of the following can cause
problems: Green Spider Mite and Mealy Bugs (spread from South America to Africa
in the 1970s), Stem Borers, Weevil Borers, Red Spiders and Scale Insects. Wild
game can also devastate sweet cassava crops.
Diseases: viruses are the most serious problem; two are described below:
… Mosaic Virus„young leaves become white or yellow (chlorotic) and are smaller
and distorted. Yields can be reduced by 95%. Transmitted by the Whitefly and by
planting infected cuttings. Control: use resistant varieties and clean stem cuttings for
planting, destroy infected plants.
… Brown Streak Virus„mature leaves become chlorotic, but without distortion; the
stems have brown streaks, become shrunken and may die; roots become discoloured.
Transmitted in the same ways as Mosaic Virus. Common in the coastal regions of
East Africa, and mainly associated with low temperatures. Controlled with crop
rotation; some varieties have some resistance.
… Bacterial Blight (or Wilt) „caused by Xanthomonas manihotis, it is now more
serious than Mosaic Virus in tropical Africa. Controlled with resistant varieties and
improved drainage.
YIELD
The tubers of cassava can rapidly rot or spoil when they are above ground, so they
are normally left in the field and only harvested when needed as food. However the
tubers can be stored for much longer periods if they are peeled, sliced and dried in
the sun.
 Yields vary according to variety/growth period, soil type, cultivation method and
severity of disease attack, particularly by virus. It has been observed that varieties
with long thin leaf lobes often yield more than varieties with short wide leaf lobes.
 In ideal conditions 80 MT/ha can be achieved, but the global average is closer to 
10 MT/ha; the African average is about 8 MT/ha.
 In 2004 FAO reported that the Cook Islands achieved the highest national average
yield, 25 MT/ha, and that Burkina Faso had the lowest, 2.0 MT/ha.



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208TONY WINCH
UTILISATION
€Tubers, after detoxication, can be eaten in many different ways: ground into
flour, fermented slightly and dried into a flour known as garri in West Africa,
or made into a coarse meal known as farinha in South America, gaplek in
Indonesia, etc. 
€Tapioca is made from fine starch extracted from the tubers, while in industry
cassava starch is used in adhesives and cosmetics, and as a source of acetone,
sugars and starches. 
€Rural and other communities around the world are also cheered by the large
range of beers and other alcoholic beverages made from the tubers of this
noble plant.
€Whole plants can be used, planted very close together in staggered lines to
form living fences for protection of crops, property, etc from animals. If nothing
else is available the stems can be used as low quality building or shade material.
€Leaves unfortunately may contain HCN, which is a pity as they also have a high
content of protein and Vitamin A and C. They can be very useful for protecting
the soil from erosion and also reducing weed growth„many modern varieties
have a very high leaf area index and so are especially useful for this purpose.
LIMITATIONS
€Cassava tubers often contain HCN; they also have a high fibre content and a
low protein content (0.7…3%).
€The plants are susceptible to virus diseases, and sometimes also to insect pests
and predation by wild animals.
€Long growth period, though this is not always a problem as cassava is a good
famine reserve food, which can be stored safely in the field and underground, or
sun dried.
€The tubers can deteriorate rapidly, within one or two days, unless they are
stored in good conditions.
Irish potato
Solanum tuberosum
European Potato, English Potato, Common Potato, White Potato, Solanum Potato -
to distinguish it from the Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas). Pomme de Terre (French);
Kartoffel, Erdapfel (German); Patatas, Papa (Spanish); Batatas, Batata Reina 
(Portuguese); Ekapa (Angola); Dinish (Tigray); Dinich (Ethiopia); Aaloo, Alu
(Hindi); Kachalu (Pashtu and Dari).
The potato originated in South America, and its name comes from the Spanish
patata, from batatas, an American Indian word for the sweet potato. Potatoes are
now grown throughout the world, principally in Europe; large areas are grown in
Russia, Germany, Poland, India and China. In temperate climates it is the most
important root crop, while the sweet potato is king in warmer climates. 




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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK209
The FAO estimate for global production in 2004 was 328 million MT.
 Many thousand separate varieties of potatoes are grown, and the description
below is only a rather brief synopsis of the vast array of literature available on
potatoes.
 Although plants can propagate from true seed the planting material used by food
producers is the swollen underground stem, or tuber (which for planting purposes is
known as seed or, occasionally, setts). Thus each new potato plant formed exactly
resembles its parent in its genetic makeup and, therefore, characteristics.
 As a general rule, plants with white flowers have tubers with white skin, while
plants with pink, red, blue or purple flowers have tubers with coloured skin,
normally pinkish.
 In the tropics potato plants do not normally flower, and are normally only grown
there as a cool season crop or at high altitudes.
 The tubers contain about 80% water, 2% protein, 18% carbohydrate (mostly
starch), and a number of minerals; freshly dug tubers contain about 20 mg/100 g
Vitamin C though this decreases during storage.
PLANTING
Propagation: by means of the whole tubers (seed potatoesŽ or settsŽ) or parts of
tubers, cut to include at least one bud or eyeŽ. If they are cut, the tubers should be
cut at right angles to the main axis so as to avoid apical dominance (the inhibition of
lateral buds to form branches). Ideally, seed should be chittedŽ before planting;
place the seed in single layers, rose endŽ up„the end with the most eyes. Protect
from frost and/or direct sunlight. Before planting, remove all but 3…4 chits at the
rose end.
Soil: should be well drained. Optimum pH is 5.5…6. They do not normally need
lime, but do need a good supply of nutrients, manure being particularly beneficial.
They are moderately susceptible to saline soils. 
Fertiliser is commonly used, up to 110 kg/ha Nitrogen and 225 kg/ha Phosphate.
Potash is also normally needed, but not always, and in smaller quantities than
nitrogen or phosphate.
Dormancy: potato tubers are normally dormant for at least six weeks, and up to
about 10 weeks, after the tuber is fully grown. Some time after this they may begin
to develop sprouts, or chits, indicating that they are ready for planting (see
PropagationŽ, above).
Seed rate: for maincrop about 1.5…3 MT/ha, for earlies about 3…4.5 MT/ha of
tubers, which for planting purposes become known as seed or setts.
Spacing: 20…30 cm between plants; 70…120 cm between rows for maincrop, 40…60
cm for earlies.
Depth: 5…15 cm. Potato plants should be earthed up or ridged up as they develop, to
improve the development of the tubers and to prevent the upper ones from turning
green ie developing solanine when exposed to light, and also to reduce the build-up
of blight disease. Solanine is an alkaloid which is toxic in high concentrations,
causing vomiting and other symptoms. 
Intercropping: potatoes are normally grown in pure stand, but are occasionally
mixed together with maize or beans. A fast growing catch crop (1Gc, page 62) such
as lettuce can sometimes be grown on the ridges before the potato haulm takes over.



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210TONY WINCH
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: 95…150 days, depending on the type/variety, normally classified as
being either 1st early, 2nd early or maincrop. 
The haulm (1Ic) should be burned off or removed a few days or weeks before
harvest to allow the tubers skins to harden up, and so bruise less easily.
Day length: there are both short-day and long-day varieties of potatoes; the former
types are mainly grown in the tropics.
Temperature: varies greatly depending on the variety, though the optimum soil
temperature is about 20…25°C. The higher the temperature, the more the aerial parts
develop at the expense of tuber development. At about 30°C tuber development
virtually stops. The plants are frost sensitive, especially when young.
Rainfall: some varieties can produce a small yield with only 350 mm during the
growing season, though the optimum is about 25 cm per week during the growing
season. Drought can be disastrous for potatoes, especially if this occurs when the
tubers should be bulking up.
Altitude: in the tropics, potatoes grow best above about 1800 m. For most varieties
the maximum is about 3000 m, though some Andean varieties grow best at 2000…
4000 m.
Diseases: volunteer plants, including the tubers, should be removed from the field as
soon as possible, to minimise spread of diseases. The dreaded Potato Blight
(sometimes called Late Blight) is caused by the Phytophthora infestans fungus and
is the most devastating of all potato diseases. In many ways it was responsible for
the Irish famine in the 1840s. Symptoms are almost always seen on the plants to
some extent, but the disease really only spreads rapidly and causes loss of
production in warm and humid conditions. 
Symptoms of Potato Blight: leaves develop irregular brown necrotic (dead) patches. 
In warm, humid weather the whole plant becomes affected, the tubers becoming
rotten and horribly smelly. Tuber rot is more common in temperate than in tropical
regions. The disease is mainly transmitted by the fungal spores being carried from
plant to plant, suspended in air or water droplets; and also by infected tubers being
planted. 
Spores can survive in the field even without a potato crop because they also live and
multiply on wild Solanum species and volunteer potato plants.
 It can be controlled with fungicides„Copper Sulphate or Bordeaux mixtureŽ
works well, sprayed every 2…3 weeks during the growing season as a preventative;
resistant varieties are available, uninfected seed (tubers) only must be planted, and it
may be possible to choose the planting date to avoid warm, wet weather during the
later stages of the potatos growth period. The haulm should also be burned off
and/or removed as soon as it becomes seriously infected. 
… Bacterial Wilt„a very serious problem in that land which is infected with this
bacteria can never be used again for growing potatoes. Symptoms: the plants wilt,
despite a moist soil, and a white mass oozes from the base of the stem or tuber when
it is cut. Bacterial Wilt does not occur in Europe, but virtually all varieties grown
there are susceptible to it, so potato plant material should never be moved from
country to country unless it has been reliably certified to be free from this disease.
The only practical control is by using varieties with some resistance. In areas where



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK211
there is a marked dry season, some control is obtained by a bare fallow (nothing
planted). Fumigation works well, but is very expensive.
… Virus Diseases„Leaf Roll, Potato Virus X and Y are the most damaging, but not
serious unless the tubers are kept for seed. Seed potato crops are therefore grown in
cold, aphid-free areas.
… Scab„parts of the surface of the potato become brown and cracked, but this
mainly causes only cosmetic damageŽ. Worst in alkaline/heavily limed soils with
low organic matter content. Controlled by watering and by incorporating plenty of
humus into the soil before planting.
Pests: potatoes are very attractive to slugs, which can be controlled on a small scale
with various traps, or as a last resort, with Aluminium Sulphate or other insecticide
pellets applied to the soil near the plants. This should always be covered, as
protection against the elements and so that wild life cannot eat the pellets.
… Potato Aphids„see Virus Diseases above. They are not normally sprayed.
… Nematodes„two types: the type found in temperate regions (potato root eel-
worm) forms cysts on the roots and can become a major problem if potatoes are
grown too often on the same soil. The other type, found in the tropics, causes neither
cysts nor any damage.
… Colorado Beetle„yellow, with four black stripes on its back. The larvae eat the
leaves and can destroy the entire crop. Controlled with derris, pyrethrum or nicotine.
… Potato Tuber Moth„larvae attack the haulm, then enter the tubers; or they attack
the tubers in storage. Worse when potatoes are grown out of season.
… Cutworms, Wireworms and Epilachna Beetle can also cause some damage.
YIELD
The global average yield of potatoes in 2004 was estimated by FAO at 17.6 MT/ha,
but yields vary widely from about 5…10 MT/ha in low input systems in Africa and
elsewhere to over 50 MT/ha in advanced farming systems.
A ccording to FAO the highest national average yield in 2004 was achieved by
Belgium, with an impressive 48.4 MT/ha. The lowest was in Angola and Benin,
both reporting 3 MT/ha. 
  The UK average yield for 2004 was estimated by FAO at 43 MT/ha.
UTILISATION
€Virtually all potatoes are grown for more or less local consumption, normally
boiled, fried or roasted. In parts of Africa mashed potatoes are eaten with maize
and legumes. 
€Potatoes are widely enjoyed in alcoholic form as vodka.
€Small and/or diseased tubers are often fed to animals.
€In industry, potatoes are used as a source of starch, and for spirits and industrial
alcohol.



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212TONY WINCH
LIMITATIONS
€Potatoes are susceptible to many diseases, especially Blight.
€The growing plants need quite specific temperature conditions as well as a
regular rainfall pattern or irrigation.
€Low protein content of about 2% (though the protein is richer in lysine than
cereals).
€The crop is labour intensive to cultivate, especially in unmechanized systems.
€The tubers are bulky and expensive to transport, 80% of the weight is water. In
store they are prone to become either rotten and/or damaged by insects, rodents,
etc.
€All green or sprouting plant parts contain poisonous glycoalkaloids, known as
solanine, which may cause acute nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea & prostration,
usually of a mild degree.
Sweet potato
Ipomoea batatas
Yam (North America) Patate Douce, Patate de Malaga (French); Susskartoffel
(German); Papa Dulce (Latin America); Batata de Malaga, Boniato, Camote
(Spanish); Batata douce (Portuguese); Batatas (Arabic); Kamote (Philippines);
Kumala (Fiji); Shakarkandi (Hindi); Mucur Dinish (Tigray); Tafach Dinich
(Ethiopia); Usamb, Katata {Katitosmall} (Angola); Kachalu-e Shirin (Dari)
Sweet potatoes have a great range of types, and show wide variety in characteristics,
but basically there are two types, based on the consistency of the tubers when they
are cooked. The one type has firm, dry, mealy flesh which is normally yellowish or
purplish; the other type has a softer, moist, whiter flesh„often incorrectly called
YamsŽ, especially in the USA. Hundreds of named, improved varieties of both
types are available.
T he plant is perennial but is usually cultivated as an annual. It is a member of the
Convolvulaceae (morning glory) family; the flowers are monoecious (male and
female flowers both on the same plant). 
In  the subtropics and temperate regions the tubers are mainly harvested all at the
same time, then stored for winter use and subsequent planting. In the tropics stem
cuttings are taken and planted during virtually 12 months of the year.
  Some varieties produce trailing or twining stems 5 metres or longer, and the leaves
are very variable between varieties; even on the same plant older leaves may look
very different from younger ones.
B oth the tuber and the aerial parts are eaten, and sweet potatoes are an important
part of the diet in many tropical countries. Sweet potato tubers contain the pigment
beta-carotene, which the human body can convert into Vitamin A. The tubers con-
tain about 16% starch, 6% sugars and are a good source of Vitamin C (23 mg/100 g).
In  2004 more than 127 million MT were grown, according to FAO. The biggest
producers are China, Asia, Africa, North and South America, Japan and New Zealand.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK213
PLANTING
Soil: sandy loams are ideal for sweet potatoes, though there are varieties that will
grow well in most soil types. Sweet potatoes are sensitive to waterlogging and
alkalinity„pH6 is optimum ie they are tolerant of acidity, and are moderately
susceptible to salinity. 
Fertiliser is rarely used, and although the plants do not have a high demand for
nutrients sweet potatoes normally respond well to high Phosphate and Potash
fertilisers. Typical applications are, in kg/ha: N20…80, P80…150, K80…170. K is
generally more important than N or P, and too much N may encourage stem growth
at the expense of tuber growth. Organic manures are very beneficial.
Propagation: stem cuttings about 20…45 cm long are almost always used in the
tropics, as they are less valuable than tubers and are also free from soil-borne
diseases. The lower half is pushed into the soil at an angle„sometimes only the
central part of the cutting is buried. 
 In some countries in temperate regions small tubers are first planted close to-
gether in a nursery; they are then sprouted, and become known as slipsŽ which
are transplanted into the field after 4…6 weeks when about 30 cm long. With this
system only the best tubers from the least diseased and insect damaged plants should
be used.
Spacing: normally on ridges about 90 cm high with about 30 cm between plants.
Sometimes on mounds or hills about 60 cm high about one metre apart, with several
plants per hill. The optimum plant population is about 25…30,000 plants (vines) per
hectare.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: short-day; most varieties will only flower when the day length is less
than 11 or 12 hours per day, though flowering is not of any great relevance to
farmers.
Growth period: 3…8 months, depending mainly on variety and rainfall. Plants are
mature and ready for harvest when the leaves turn yellow, but the tubers are best left
storedŽ in the ground until needed. In arid areas smaller yields are produced, in
about 3 months.
Crop care: the vines should be lifted and turned back on to the ridges from time to
time. Although this practice will allow more weeds to grow in the unshaded inter-
row areas, it does prevent the vines from forming roots, so the plant can produce
fewer„but more uniform and larger„tubers.
Temperature: 25°C is optimum, but most varieties will still grow, slowly, at 10°C.
The maximum is about 32°C. Sweet potatoes need a 4…6 month frost-free growing
period; a slight frost may kill young plants of some varieties. The foliage of older
plants may be damaged, even by a light frost, but the plants normally recover.
Rainfall: the optimum is from about 750 to 1300 mm per year, minimum is about
500 mm. If the plants are well established they can tolerate long dry periods. They
will usually also tolerate very high rainfall, especially if planted at the end of the
rainy season; a mature crop covers the soil surface with vines and leaves, reducing
both soil erosion and weed growth.



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214TONY WINCH
Altitude: from sea level to 2500 m, on the equator.
Pests: Sweet Potato Weevil is the most serious pest of sweet potatoes. The larvae
feed mainly on the tubers but also on the leaves and vines, especially with late
planted or dry season crops. Controlled with crop rotations and destroying or
feeding all infected plant material; plant only clean cuttings or slips. 
  Other, normally less damaging, insects include the Sweet Potato Leaf Beetle,
wireworms, grasshoppers, fleabeetles and termites. Leaf-eating caterpillars can be
controlled with insecticides.
Diseases: not usually a big problem in the tropics. There are two main types:
a) field diseases of leaves, vines and tubers; Black Rot, Soft and Dry Rots, Leaf
Spot, Scurf (Rust), Stem Rot (Wilt) and Soil Rot (Pox) are the most common.
Mainly easily kept under control, if necessary, with fungicides.
b) storage diseases, especially of damaged tubers. Soft Rot is the most common,
control is by using resistant varieties, crop rotations and planting clean cuttings/
slips. Dry Rot, Java Black Rot and Charcoal Rot can give problems. As mentioned,
the tubers are best left stored in the ground. 
(Some diseases appear at both stages). 
YIELD
The tubers are ready for harvest when the leaves turn yellow and begin to drop.
Although the potential yield of sweet potatoes is well over 50 MT/ha they
commonly yield no more than 15 MT/ha or less, mainly because they are very often
grown on poor land and are not carefully cultivated. 
T he global average estimated by FAO in 2004 was 14.8 MT/ha, from the highest
average in Israel of 35 MT/ha to a low in Mauritania of 1.0 MT/ha.
UTILISATION
€Sweet potato tubers are an important part of the diet in many countries in the
tropics and subtropics, mainly for subsistence purposes. They are normally
either boiled or baked. Tubers are also often fed to animals. For storage they can
be sliced and dried in the sun. Products manufactured from the tubers include
starch flour, syrup, glucose and alcohol.
€The young leaves and tender parts of the stem are sometimes eaten as a
vegetable.
€The haulm (vines and leaves) can be either fed directly to animals or ensilaged.
LIMITATIONS
€Sweet potatoes have a high labour requirement for land preparation and
harvesting.
€They are also sensitive to waterlogging, salinity and alkalinity.
€The plants are heavy feedersŽ and need plenty of calcium, boron and
magnesium as well as the major elements to produce good crops.
€The tubers do not store well, unless dried, and lose much moisture within a few
weeks.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK215
Taro
Colocasia spp.
Taro (French); Kolokasie (German); Malanga Islena (Spanish); Kechalo Pakistani
(Pashtu); Assipi (Angola)
The taro, dasheen, eddoe, cocoyam (oldŽ and newŽ), malanga, tania, elephant
ear, etc. are all members of the large botanical arum-lily family the Araceae, or
AroidsŽ or ArumŽ, with about 100 genera and 1500 species found throughout the
world. Farmers have selected these useful plants since prehistoric times, each type
being adapted to grow well in certain parts of Asia, Africa, Oceania or Latin
America.
T he Aroids are an important food crop in many parts of the humid tropics, such
as the Pacific, West Indies and West Africa. Global production is estimated at about
6 million MT per annum.
T hey are grown mainly for their edible corms or cormels„a cormŽ is a short,
solid, swollen underground stem which lasts for about one year; the next years corm
grows at the top of, or close to, the old corm. A cormelŽ is a corm which arises
vegetatively from a parent corm.
 T here is great confusion and disagreement among botanists and agri-
culturalists about the classification of the Aroids. The common names used for
them often depend on the country„in West Africa for example the name
CocoyamŽ is used for both Colocasia and Xanthosoma species. In the Pacific, most
of the species on the table below are known as TaroŽ. This table includes only the
most important species of Aroids:
Species (spp.)Common NamesComment
Asian Origin
1. Alocasia macrorrhiza Giant Taro,Taamu, Ape 1. 3-4m tall; Stem
2. Alocasia indicaSometimes above ground is
considered the same eaten
3. Colocasia esculentaspecies as 1) 2. 2m tall. Important in
var. esculentaDasheen, Taro, Eddoe, India
4. Colocasia esculentaCocoyam Species 3. and 4. are
var. antiquorumEddoe, Dasheen (Asia described in the
(=var. globulifera)and Pacific), text below
5. Cyrtosperma Elephant  5. 3-4m tall; Tubers up
chamissonisEar, Akhi (Hindi) to 60 kg after ten
Giant Swamp Taro years
South American Origin1. Yellow tubers; found
1. Xanthosoma mainly in Puerto
atrovirensAll four of these species Rico
2. X. sagittifoliumare known as 2. Makes good fufuŽ
3. X. violaceumTannia, Tanier, 3. Large plants, tubers
Yautia or (new)
4. X. brasilenseof little food value
Cocoyam 4. Only the leaves are
eaten



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216TONY WINCH
Both species of Alocasia are very hardy and high yielding.
 Colocasia and Xanthosoma are similar crops; they are complementary, not
competitive, because they are adapted to different growing conditions. Xanthosoma
are more drought tolerant than Colocasia, and they grow better in the shade. Both
types are highly resistant to attack by pests and diseases.
 The description below refers to the two species:
Colocasia esculenta var. esculenta„normally called the Dasheen;
Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum„normally called the Eddoe.
PLANTING
Propagation:
Dasheen„either by the leaf-bearing tops of mature corms, especially in the Pacific,
or by small side tubers or suckers;
Eddoe„small cormels (60…150 g) are planted whole.
Soil: the best are forest soils that have been cleared and burned for the first time.
Soils should be wet, heavy and fertile. Eddoes need less fertile soils than dasheens.
Some varieties are tolerant of flooding and salinity. Both normally respond well to
potash as well as nitrogen and phosphate, normally applied in two or three split
dressings.
Spacing: roughly 60…90 cm if grown in pure stands.
Intercropping: this is the normal method, mixed with okra, pigeon peas, maize, etc.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: 5…6 months for eddoes, 8…10 months for dasheens.
Temperature: they need hot conditions; eddoes withstand low temperatures better
than dasheens, which need about 6 or 7 frost free months. The optimum daily
temperature is 21…27°C.
Rainfall: dasheens need about 2500 mm per year, eddoes need less.
Pests: Taro Leafhopper (Tarophagus. proserpina), can be biocontrolled with Mirid
bugs; Gabi Moth larvae can cause major defoliation; Root-knot nematodes are a
serious pest in some countries.
Diseases: Taro Leaf Blight is usually the most serious, especially in the Pacific.
Symptoms are round, water-soaked dead spots on the leaves, then the plant collapses
and dies. Some control with fungicides such as Dithane. Root rots and virus diseases
may also be a problem.
YIELD
Dasheen„small side suckers are left in the ground after harvest and allowed to
regrow, or ratoon. The ratoon crop is often grown only for the leaves. Average
yields of corms are 15…20 MT/ha for the first harvest and 10…15 MT/ha for the first
ratoon crop. 
40 MT/ha and more is possible.
Eddoe„this crop is not ratooned. The corms and cormels can be left storedŽ in the
ground until needed during the dry season. The main, central corm is relatively small
but has many side cormels.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK217
UTILISATION
€Corms, or tubersŽ, are not only rich in Vitamins B and C but are also easily
digested and are therefore suitable for feeding to infants, old people and those with
gastric disorders. Raw corms contain about 25% starch and up to 13 mg/100 g
Vitamin C. They can be a good substitute for Irish potatoes, sliced and fried into
chips. The corms can be roasted, boiled or baked, or made into meal or flour. In
Polynesia the famous Poi dish is made from crushed, fermented taro.
€Young leaves are often eaten as a vegetable, a bit like spinach, though many
varieties have a very bitter taste. An excellent source of Vitamin C (52 mg/100 g
in raw leaves), the young leaves also provide protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron,
potassium and vitamins A and B.
€Young shoots are sometimes blanched in steam and eaten like asparagus.
LIMITATIONS
€Dasheen corms can normally only be stored for a few weeks„at about 10°C
they last up to six months. Eddoes can be stored for several months, but only if
dried and well stored.
€Leaf blight and virus diseases can be very damaging.
€Taro plants need high rainfall and heavy, fertile soil unless heavy fertiliser
applications and/or irrigation are used.
€The plants take a long time to produce a crop, especially dasheens.
€The corms and leaves of some varieties have bad tasting calcium oxalate crystals
which must be removed during cooking, and make them inedible when raw.
€Low protein content.
€Very little scientific or agronomic effort has been given to Taro, and modern
science has played virtually no part in the development of this potentially very
productive food crop. The reason may perhaps be partly due to the confusion
over the naming and description of the different species, sub-species and
varieties.
Yam
Dioscorea spp.
D. alata Greater Yam, D. bulbifera Air Potato, D. cayenensis Yellow GuineaYam,
D. dumetorum African Bitter Yam, D. elephantipes Elephants Foot or Hottentot
Bread, D. esculenta Lesser Yam, D. hispida Asiatic Bitter Yam, D. nummularia &
pentaphylla Yam, D. opposita (or D.batatas) Chinese Yam (or Cinnamon Vine), D.
persimalis Bush Yam, D. rotundata White Guinea Yam, D. sansibarensis Wild
Yam, D. trifida Cush-cush Yam; Igname (French); Yamswurzel (German); Name,
Yame (Spanish);
Aja, Yampi, Mapuey, Inhame (Portuguese); Khamba Alu (Hindi)
The Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas) is sometimes known as yamŽ (from the
African nyami), especially in Americanised English and when they have orange
flesh. To add to the confusion the edible tubers of some other species are also
sometimes known as yams. The description below refers to plants of the genus



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218TONY WINCH
Dioscorea. Yams should not be confused with the Yam Bean Pachyrrhizus erosus, a
leguminous climbing plant grown mainly in India and South-East Asia; the tubers
are either thinly sliced and eaten raw in salads or cooked or pickled; the young pods
are edible, but the seed is poisonous.
 The global production of yams was estimated by FAO at 40 million MT in 2004,
about 75% from West Africa, especially Nigeria. Yams are also widely grown in
southeast Asia, the Pacific and the Caribbean, although production of yams is
declining overall as they are becoming replaced by cassava and sweet potatoes, both
of which are often able to produce more food with less labour input. Since they are a
climbing crop they need vertical support, but then dont we all. Ideally yams should
be grown up stakes.
 Nutritionally the yams are more useful than cassava, particularly in protein. They
contain about 28% starch and about 5 mg/100 g Vitamin C; carotene is present in
varieties with yellow flesh. Cases of kwashiorkor have been seen to increase when
yam is replaced with cassava in the diet. They were used on long sailing journeys,
including slave ships between West Africa and the New World; they contain enough
Vitamin C to help reduce scurvy.
 There are about 600 species of Dioscorea, of which three are particularly
interesting:
Dioscorea alata„Greater Yam, Water Yam, Winged Yam, Ten-month Yam,
Asiatic Yam or White Yam. A native of southeast Asia, it is now grown throughout
the tropics. The highest yielding species of them all. Requires high rainfall, about
1600 mm a year is ideal. In West Africa the White Guinea Yam (D. rotundata) is
more popular as it makes better fufu. Stores well, for five or six months at least.
Stems twine to the right.
Dioscorea rotundata„White Guinea Yam, Eight-month Yam. A native of Africa,
where it is the most important yam, mainly grown in West Africa. Not grown in
Asia. Very similar to the Yellow Guinea Yam (D. cayenensis), though it has better
drought resistance and the tubers have a longer dormancy period, and so can be
stored longer. Stem up to 10 m long, twines to the right.
Dioscorea cayenensis„Yellow Guinea Yam, Twelve-month Yam, Cut-and-come-
again. A native of West Africa where it grows well in the forest zone with a short
dry season. Not grown in Asia or the Pacific. Can be harvested throughout the year.
Stores poorly. Stems twine to the right.
 There are at least eight other important sub-species, listed below:-
Dioscorea esculenta„Lesser Yam, Chinese Yam, Pana Yam. Mainly grown in Asia
and the Pacific. Produces up to 20 small tubers per plant. Does not store well. Stems
twist to the right.
Dioscorea trifida„Cush-cush Yam, Aja, Yampi, Indian Yam, Mapuey. The only
food yam native to South America. Now grown in the Caribbean and South America
where it is highly prized for its flavour, though it yields less than the introduced
Dioscorea alata. Produces a group of small tubers 15-20 cm long. Stems twine to
the left.
Dioscorea dumetorum„American Bitter Yam, Cluster Yam, Forest Yam. Occurs
wild throughout Africa between 15°N and S; mainly cultivated in West Africa.
Many of the wild forms contain a poison which must be removed by soaking and
boiling, though they are often used as famine food. Tubers are either single or in
clusters. Stems twine to the left.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK219
Dioscorea bulbifera„Potato Yam, Aerial Yam, Bulbil-bearing Yam. Widely grown
in the tropics of Africa and Asia. Subterranean tubers are small, hard and bitter (or
may be absent), while the aerial tubers are good to eat, though they may need to be
detoxified. Stems twine to the left.
Dioscorea hispida„Asiatic Bitter Yam. Similar to the African Dioscorea
dumetorum. Large tubers, near to the soil surface, which are very toxic and are used
for hunting or criminal purposes; the toxin can be removed, and the tubers are used
as a famine food in the tropical East. Stems twine to the left.
Dioscorea nummularia„grown in Indonesia and Oceania. Similar to Dioscorea
cayenensis, but tubers are formed deep in the ground, and are allowed to grow for
2…3 years before they are dug up. Stems twine to the right.
Dioscorea opposita (or D. batatas)„Chinese Yam, Cinnamon Yam or Vine. Used
medicinally in China. The most resistant to cold of all the yams. Grown in China,
Korea, Taiwan and Japan.
Dioscorea pentaphylla„occurs both wild and cultivated in the warm, moist parts of
Asia. Non-toxic tubers. Often grown as hedges around fields.
PLANTING
Propagation: normally done vegetatively, using 100 g…2 kg parts of a large tuber, or
whole small tubers. Rich topsoil and compost should be put in the planting hole.
About 2 MT/ha of tubers are needed. Many wild yams reproduce freely by seeds,
but many cultivated varieties rarely or never produce viable, fertile seed.
Germination: yams are monocotyledons, though some botanists believe that some
varieties have two cotyledons, one of which remains within the seed.
Soil: should be fairly fertile, loose, deep and well drained. Responds well to
Nitrogen but very often does not respond to Phosphorus. Normally, yams give an
economic response to NPK fertilisers at about 600 kg/ha, and manure. The plants
also benefit from mulching.
Plant spacing: 10…15,000 setts/ha. For sub-species with larger tubers, either in a
1×1m square grid or with 50 cm along the ridges and 1.5 m between ridges, giving
about 10,000 setts/ha. Planted somewhat closer together when the tubers are small.
Stakes: yams should be allowed to grow up stakes at least 2 m high and with
branches, which can increase yields by 60% or so.
Rotation: often the first crop planted during shifting cultivation, or after a fallow.
Yams yield well after a leguminous green manure crop.
Intercropping: almost always done, with one or more crops such as maize, okra or
cucurbits.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: D. alata and D. rotundata produce the first edible tubers in 8…10
months. D. cayenensis needs about 2 more months, and can then be harvested
continuously.



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220TONY WINCH
Day length: long days favour vine (stem) development, short days favour tuber
growth.
Temperature: yams do not tolerate frost and grow poorly below 25°C. D. opposita
is the most tolerant species to cold. Should not be stored below about 10°C.
Rainfall: optimum is 1500 mm per year or more, though some species can survive
with 1000 mm. There should ideally be at least 2…4 months of dry season.
Pests: in West Africa Yam Beetles are the worst; adults feed on the tubers, making
round 1…2 cm lesions and may also damage the growing points of newly planted
setts. Other pests include the Yam Weevil and Scale Insects. The Yam Nematode,
which is also a storage pest, can be controlled with rotation and by only planting
clean tubers.
Diseases: rarely a serious problem. Leaf Spot is the most common, causing brown
or black spots on the leaves and stems. Anthracnose and Witches Broom occur in
West Africa, and Rust occurs everywhere. Mosaic virus diseases have been reported
in West Africa and the Caribbean, controlled by destroying all infected plants.
Storage rots can cause major losses, though the severity depends on the species,
variety, degree of injury of the tubers and the number of yam nematodes that are
present.
YIELD
There is enormous variation in yields of yam, according to the growing conditions,
crop management, species and variety. 
 The global average is about 10 MT/ha (9.1 MT/ha in 2004, according to FAO),
but yields of about 20…30 MT/ha are common. National average yields in 2004
ranged from a high of 22.3 MT/ha in the Solomon Islands to 2.7 MT/ha in Ruanda.
 The most commonly grown yam species produce 1, 2 or 3 tubers, each weighing
from 5 to 15 kg. Some plants produce up to 50 kg of tubers.
UTILISATION
€Yams are grown almost exclusively for the human consumption of the tubers.
Small tubers can be peeled, then boiled or roasted; larger tubers are also peeled,
cut into smaller pieces, then either fried in oil, roasted or boiled. They are
sometimes added to stews. The tubers can be stored for longer periods if dried
up and ground into flour. In West Africa, they are normally eaten as fufuŽ,
peeled, cut up and boiled tubers pounded in a wooden mortar.
€Some wild species such as D. floribunda and D. villosa contain usable
proportions of diosgenin, a precursor for the synthesis of fertility and anti-
inflammatory drugs.
LIMITATIONS
€Yams are very labour intensive, for both cultivation and food preparation.
€The tubers are often rather expensive to buy.
€The plants require high rainfall, or irrigation, and fertile and well drained soil.
€The plants are also sensitive to frost.
€Fungi and/or nematodes can often cause large storage losses.
€Some species contain toxic alkaloids.
€Modest energy value of about 100 calories per 100mg edible portion.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK221
2E. VEGETABLES
The word vegetableŽ is an imprecise term„many crops that are often described as 
vegetablesŽ are described elsewhere in this booklet as, for example, Root CropsŽ
(Irish potato) or LegumesŽ (peas, beans, etc).  For the purposes of this publication,
vegetables are defined as being plants eaten whole or in part, either cooked or
raw, and which do not usually constitute the main part of the meal or diet.
 Vegetables generally provide very little in the way of energy, but are useful in
making high energy food such as cereals and root crops more interesting and
palatable to eat. They are also very often valuable sources of fibre (both soluble and
insoluble), vitamins, especially A and C, and certain trace elements.
 The most important plant families that provide vegetables are listed below:
Alliaceae (Liliaceae). The onion family; leeks, garlic and chives.
Asteraceae (Compositae). The daisy sunflower family; both the Jerusalem and
Globe artichoke, chicory, endive, lettuce, salsify (oyster plant) and sunflower.
Chenopodiaceae. The beet family; spinach, leaf beet, sugar beet, beetroot, Good
King Henry, kaniwa, Lambs Quarters, orach, quinoa and Swiss chard and orach.
Cruciferae (sometimes called Brassicaceae). The cabbage (or mustard) family. The
vegetables in this family are mainly in the Brassica Genus, such as cauliflower,
cabbage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, collard/kale, rape, turnip and
kohlrabi. These are sometimes called cole cropsŽ, a term reflecting the fact that
these crops are primarily stem crops. Cruciferae which are not also Brassicas include
garden cress, watercress and radish.
Cucurbitaceae. The gourd family; marrows, courgettes, cucumbers, melon and
watermelon, pumpkin, squash and chayote.
Labiatae. This is mainly a family of herbs used for flavouring, such as mint, sage,
thyme and oregano, and so are not true vegetables. The few vegetables present in
this family have edible tuberous roots, found in some species of Woundwort
(Stachys affinis), the Chinese artichoke, and in the African genus Plectranthus.
Leguminosae. The legume, or pulse, family; mainly the beans and peas, both of
which have varieties grown as field crops as well as vegetables„French beans,
mange tout peas and snowpeas have edible pods, and a few species such as Apios
tuberosa also produce edible root tubers.
Liliaceae (Alliaceae). The onion family; leeks, garlic and chives.
Poaceae(Graminae). The grass family produces most of the worlds food, in the
form of wheat, maize, rice, sorghum, millet and so on. However only a few of them
are eaten as vegetables; these include sweetcorn, lemon grass and wild rice (Zizania
aquatica).
Solanaceae. The nightshade family; Irish potatoes, tomatoes, peppers and aubergine.
Umbelliferae(Apiaceae). The carrot family;carrot, caraway, celeriac, celery,
coriander, fennel, anise, dill, coriander, caraway, cumin, ginseng, hemlock, parsley
& parsnip.
 Three other less important families, Araceae, Convulvulaceae and Dioscoriaceae
produce the Taro, Sweet Potato and Yams respectively. Plants from at least another
15 plant families are also grown to be eaten as vegetables. The common and
botanical names of many of these are listed in Section 3A, pages 288…309.



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222TONY WINCH
Cabbage
Brassica oleracea var. capitata
Common Cabbage, Head Cabbage
Chou (cabus) (French); Kohl (German); Col (Spanish); Couve (Portugal), Repolho,
Repolhuda (Brazil); Acovi (Angola); Patgobhy (Hindi); (Shna)Karam (Pashtu and
Dari).
Cabbage is just one of the races (or botanical varieties) of the species Brassica
oleracea, the Wild Cabbage. Brassicas are the most important Genus of the cabbage
(or mustard) family the Cruciferae. There are several other races of Brassica
oleracea:
€var. acephala„Kale, Collard, Borecole
€var. botrytis„Cauliflower
€var. alboglabra„Chinese Broccoli
€var. gemmifera„Brussels sprouts
€var. gongylodes„Kohlrabi
€var. italica„3 types of broccoli: Sprouting Broccoli, Calabrese and Romanesco.
Also perennial (Nine StarŽ) broccoli.
Chinese cabbage is normally classified as Brassica chinensis var. pekinensis
 Wild cabbage plants are still found growing in southern England, western France
and northwest Spain. Selections from this plant have been made by food producers
for over 2000 years, and kale is mentioned in early Greek writings. Modern cabbage
varieties are now grown throughout the world, including cooler parts of the lowland
tropics.
 The plant is a biennial, but the crop is grown as an annual. The thick,
overlapping leaves are the part of the plant that is eaten. The headsŽ formed by
these leaves come in a wide range of shapes, sizes and colours„essentially, heads
are either round or pointed, green or red, smooth or wrinkled„rather like people.
 Cabbages can be produced twelve months of the year in many places around the
world by planting successively a few of the eight types available (months refer to the
UK):
Spring cabbage comes in two forms, either spring greens or spring hearting, both
transplanted out in September in northern temperate regions, ready to eat in April
and May. Some varieties, such as Durham Early are dual-purpose, providing first
greens then small hearts.
Summer cabbage always forms a heart, either red or green, pointed or round.
Transplanted out in spring they are eaten from mid to late summer.
Autumn cabbage is planted out in mid-summer, grows rapidly and is eaten in the
autumn.
Winter white cabbage plants are large and grown to be stored; planted out in June,
maturing in November and December, can be stored for months.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK223
Savoy cabbage is the hardiest of all and some varieties withstand coldest winters.
Planted out in early July, harvested October to March according to variety. Wrinkled
leaves, good for coleslaw.
Savoy hybrids are crosses between savoy and white cabbages. Very hardy. 
January King leaves are normally slightly crinkly and purplish, and are very tasty.
Planted out in early June, mature by November/December.
Red cabbage is normally eaten either raw or pickled; if cooked it takes much longer
than other cabbages, up to 2 hours boiling. Harvested in October/November, for
winter storage if needed.
 Cabbage leaves are a good source of vitamins A, C, B1, B2, B3 and D; in hard
times they can also be useful in providing bulk to the diet. Cabbage is also high in
potassium and calcium but loses most of these nutrients when the leaves are cooked.
However pickling does not destroy Vitamin C„Captain Cook insisted that his crew
stayed healthy due to a daily intake of sauerkraut.
 Collecting seed from Brassica plants is not worthwhile as they all readily cross-
pollinate and the hybridised offspring are often useless, so you need to buy fresh
seed every year or use the previous years purchased seed if it was well stored and
still germinates vigorously. A large range of varieties of all of the cabbage types
listed above are available from commercial seed suppliers, each one adapted to grow
in particular conditions. Hybrid seed of Brassicas has so far had only limited
success.
 Unless otherwise stated, the account below refers to the Common (or HeadŽ)
Cabbage, Brassica oleracea var. capitata.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed (not home-grown„see above), normally planted in boxes or
nurseries then transplanted when about 15 cm tall, at about 1…2 months. At the time
they are being planted out many people dip the roots in a bucket containing thin mud
and a little lime. 
Germination: viability of the seed rapidly diminishes in hot and/or humid
conditions. Germination is normally quite fast, in 3…6 days.
Soil: cabbages need rich, fertile and well drained soils. Sandy loams are ideal. They
like plenty of manure, but lime may be needed in more acidic soils (or plant
cabbages after a legume). Clubroot disease is more prevalent in acidic soils. Both
yield and quality are increased with compound fertilisers provided that the Nitrogen
level is not too high, but cabbages should not need any. The soil should be firmly
compacted around the transplanted plants.
Seed rate: 3.5…5 kg/ha. There are about 300…375,000 seeds per kg.
Plant spacing: either in a 35…50 cm square grid or 50…70 cm between rows and
40  60 c…m between plants. Fast growing crops such as lettuce or French beans can
be interplanted. They are sun plants and so prefer an open, unshaded position.
Depth: 0.5…2 cm



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224TONY WINCH
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: highly variable, depending on type and variety, and growing
conditions.
Temperature: varieties adapted to temperate regions can withstand …7°C frost. In
hot, dry regions they are grown in the cooler season and/or at high altitudes, as they
grow poorly in heat.
Rainfall: medium-high rainfall regions are ideal. Drought affects the plants badly,
which should not suffer any check to their growth. Irrigate if possible whenever dry.
Altitude: in the tropics cabbages are grown in the highlands.
Pests: cabbages are extremely attractive to insects; often the worst damage is caused
by the Cabbage root fly, which causes plants to wilt, sometimes also to develop
bluish leaves with yellow edges, and occasional death. The larvae burrow down
from the soil surface, then into the roots and stem, which they attack at ground level.
The best control is by placing a collarŽ of material such as roofing felt, carpet„
preferably greased or paraffined„around individual plants. A square of about 15 cm
is enough for the collars. Some control also comes from applying high N fertiliser,
supporting the plants by banking up soil around their stems, hoeing or moving the
soil regularly so that birds can find and eat the larvae„and destroying all infected
plants.
Large and Small Cabbage White butterflies commonly attack all Brassicas.
Caterpillars of the Large White are yellow and black and highly conspicuous as they
also feed on the upper side of leaves. The Small Whites however are small and
green and inconspicuous. Both can either be picked off and dealt with, or sprayed
with a salt solution, which also deters slugs.
Cabbage Moth larvae eat the central leaves, control with derris or pyrethrum.
Cabbage White fly look similar to the greenhouse whitefly. They overwinter on
Brassicas; eggs look like small brown scales and are laid on the lower leaves, which
should be removed. 
 The flies can be discouraged by planting lovage and/or fennel near to the
cabbage plants, which attract the parasitic wasps Aphelinus.
Leatherjackets are grey-brown, legless larvae of Daddy Long-legs which
sometimes eat seedling roots, causing the plants to wilt and die. Dig or plough soil
several times to allow birds to eat the larvae.
Cutworms are very small worms which eat small plants at the ground level. Control
with a collar„as for root fly control„or pile wood ash around the stems.
Diseases: if the dreaded Clubroot disease is present in your soil, you have a
problem, as the fungal spores can lie dormant for at least seven years. The roots
become large and malformed, and look similar to cabbage gall weevil damage,
identified by cutting open the root galls and looking for the larvae. Plants may wilt
and even die. Control or minimise spread by rotation, no Cruciferae of any kind,
including shepherds purse or charlock, for at least four years. Apply lime to acidic
soils, burn all infected roots and never put Brassica roots on the compost heap. One
ingenious method is to spray soil that is not planted with Cruciferae, but may be
planted later on, with water in which Brassica plants have been boiled. This
stimulates the fungal spores to break dormancy, but they will soon die because there
are no suitable Cruciferae to live on. Clubroot is mainly a problem of the temperate
regions. In the tropics, Blackleg, Black Rot, Downy Mildew and Cabbage Mosaic
Virus can devastate crops of cabbage equally badly.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK225
YIELD
Cabbages can produce enormous yields of 100 MT/ha and more, although about
90% of this consists of water. The global average is around 25 MT/ha. 
 An average crop is about 0.5…0.7 kg per 30 cm of row. One head can weigh 3 kg
or more.
UTILISATION
€Eaten by humans, either fresh or stored, for twelve months of the year in
temperate climates. They can be eaten raw or cooked, or pickled to produce
Sauerkraut.
€Coleslaw, a salad made with grated cabbage, originated in Holland.
€Cabbage soup is enjoyedŽ, or otherwise, throughout Europe and elsewhere.
€Cabbage can be successfully stored, particularly the late maturing Danish types.
€Eaten by animals, especially cattle„the Drumhead types are favoured.
LIMITATIONS
€As food, cabbages have low nutritional and calorific value.
€Cabbage plants are heavy feeders, and need strong, fertile soil.
€The plants are also susceptible to attack from both disease and insects.
€Some varieties are very slow to mature.
€Cabbages do not travel well, and only certain types can be stored for long
periods.
Carrot
Daucus carota
Carotte (French); Karotte, Mohre (German); Zanahoria (Spanish); 
Cenoura (Portuguese);
Ocenola (Angola); Gajar (Hindi); Gazar, Gazaray (Pashtu); Zardak (Dari).
The modern cultivated carrot is derived from selections made by farmers for
hundreds of years from the wild carrot, which normally has a white root. Nowadays
you can find carrots not only in their normal carroty-orange colour but also red,
yellow, white and even crimson. 
 The roots have some nutritional value in that they contain not only high levels of
sugar (about 7%) but also carotene, the orange pigment, which is converted into
Vitamin A when eaten, beneficial to eyesight.
 Yellow carrots were first recorded in Turkey in the tenth century, and the
Romans also grew them. Today carrots are grown virtually everywhere in the world
where other vegetables are grown. Although they are basically a cold season crop,
carrots can be grown in the subtropics and tropics, using very early, small varieties
such as Early Horn or Early Gem. At higher altitudes vigorous quick growing
Nantes or Chantenay types can be grown.



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226TONY WINCH
 The plant is a biennial, and if left in the ground will normally flower in the
second summer. It grows from about 30 cm to about 1m tall, and has a swollen
taproot, either short and stumpy or long and tapering according to the variety. Plant
breeders focus on the two main plant types, either the slower growing higher
yielding long root types or the faster growing lower yielding types with short, stubby
roots.
 Sometimes the plants behave like an annual and bolt in their first year, ie they
form a seed head, which is fed from the food reserves in the root which becomes
thin and shrivelled, useless as food in fact. The best way out of this dilemma is to
grow varieties that are adapted to the area.
 Carrots are members of the Umbelliferae (or Apiaceae) family, which includes a
number of poisonous species such as poison hemlock, water hemlock and fools
parsley, as well as edible plants such as arracacha, carrot, caraway, celeriac, celery,
coriander, fennel, anise, dill, coriander, caraway, cumin, ginseng, parsley and
parsnip.
 Some hybrid varieties are available, a few of which claim to have some tolerance
to the dreaded Carrot Fly. This pest is normally the single biggest problem with
growing carrots, and is discussed on the following page under PestsŽ. 
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed, which should be sown quite thickly as the germination rate is
often low. The seed is very small, so to make plant spacing more regular the seed is
often mixed with dry earth and/or lime when it is planted. Emergence can take ten
days or more.
Soil: carrots are not very demanding and will grow in most soils if they are not too
acidic or heavy. Sandy loams are the best, although some of these can be deficient in
some minor or trace elements, especially the deeper soils. Carrots are tolerant of
some soil acidity; ideally, the pH should be about 6…7, but prefer sandy, chalky well
limed soils. 
Manure and/or compost should be applied during the previous autumn so that it is
well rotted into the soil before the carrots are developing, to avoid forkingŽ of the
roots. The soil should be left light and fluffy, and not too compacted.
Seed rate: 1…5 kg/ha, equivalent to 4…5 seeds per 2.5 cm. There are about 890…
910,000 seeds/kg.
Spacing: 30 … 40 cm between rows. Plants in the row are first thinned to about 4 cm
between plants, and later to about 8 cm. The thinnings can (and should!) be eaten„
organic carrots taste divine. After thinning, the soil should be drawn up around the
remaining plants to discourage carrot flies from re-entering.
Depth: from about 1 cm in deep and retentive soil to 2.5 cm in dry and light soil.
Intercropping: Carrots can be interplanted with clumps or rows of Alliums such as
onions, shallots, perennial onions and garlic to hoodwink the nostrils of the wily fly.
Both the Carrot Fly and the Onion Fly are kept away if the Allium guardsŽ are
thick enough and well positioned.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK227
Rotation: ideally, five years should elapse between carrot crops to avoid disease
buildup, especially where disease/s have been significant.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: long-day.
Growth period: the first thinnings can be eaten in about 35 days. The crop can then
be thinned again, and continuously harvested when needed for a period of several
months.
Temperature: carrots are a cool season crop, although there are varieties available
which are suitable for growing in highland areas of the tropics and subtropics,
normally planted in the autumn and winter.
Rainfall: the plants should be kept moist but not wet. If irrigated, this should be
plentiful so that the water goes deep down, encouraging the roots also to go down
deep.
Pests: the commonest and worst is the Carrot Root Fly; its maggots are about 8mm
long and eat into the outside of the carrots, leaving ugly marks which may also later
develop into rot. Leaves of infested plants tend to turn red. The adult fly can smell
carrots from several kilometres away, especially when the plants are bruised, so both
thinning and weeding should ideally be done in the evening and on wet days,
preferably in a light rain, or after a thorough watering. Methods to reduce the fly
problem include placing a barrier of netting 60…80 cm high all around the carrot
plants, eliminating all nearby weeds of the Umbelliferae family as these are alternate
hosts, putting soot or wood ash on the soil around the plant stems, spraying a
mixture of 30 cc of paraffin in 4.5 litres of water onto plants, or mixing paraffin with
sand and applying it on the soil around plants. Probably the most satisfactory way of
dealing with this almost inevitable problem is to try to deter the flies with
interplanting sage, onions and other Allium plants so the flies cannot detect the
distinctive carrot smell.Best of all, try earthing up.
 Plant breeders have had some success in breeding carrot fly resistant varieties,
based on the partially resistant variety SytanŽ crossed with the Libyan species
Daucus capillifolius. Other partially resistant varieties include Fly AwayŽ,
ResistaflyŽ and MaestroŽ.
Diseases: the fungus called Carrot Disease causes brown spots to form on the roots,
then tiny red spores on the soil surface. Minimised by burning all infected roots, applying
a mixture of 2:1 sulphur:lime to infected soil and rotating five years between carrot
(or Umbelliferae/Apiaceae) crops. 
… Storage Diseases„carrots should be stored dry, and so they should not be washed
before storage„all earth and plant tops should be removed, and the roots stored in a
cool, well ventilated place„2…5°C is ideal.
YIELD
Yields of carrots are very variable, according to the variety, growth period and
conditions, soil, rainfall, etc. In poorer conditions 3 or 4 MT per hectare is common;
modern cultivation techniques can produce yields 10…12 times higher.



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228TONY WINCH
 Maincrop carrots for winter storing can be left in the ground until well into the
winter. Carrots can be stored, but for this to succeed the roots must not touch each
other and must be dry (unwashed) - sand or peat is ideal, in any container such as a
barrel or tea-chest, which must be ventilated; damaged roots should not be stored.
UTILISATION
€Human food„carrots are a good source of Vitamin A, converted from
carotene; the roots are used as a vegetable, and in soups, stews, curries, etc.
They can also pickled, canned and dehydrated. The juice can be extracted,
which can be added to orange and other juices.
€Animal food„roots and tops are sometimes fed to animals.
€Seed„contains an essential oil, used for flavouring and perfumes.
LIMITATIONS
€Carrots have low nutritive value, apart from Vitamin A and about 7% sugars.
€The plants are susceptible to damage by the Carrot Root Fly.
€In warm or humid conditions carrots have a short storage period.
Cucurbits
Cucurbita spp.
Chayote, Courgette (Zucchini), Cucumber, Cushaw, Gherkin, Gourd, Loofah,
Marrow, Melon, Pumpkin, Squash (winter and summer), Watermelon; Potiron,
Citrouille, Courge {Courge  la moelle = marrow} (French); Ayote {=C. mixta},
Gartenkurbis {=marrow} (German); Calabaza (Spanish); Abbora {=pumpkin},
Abobrinha {=courgette}, Cabaa {=gourd} (Portuguese); Sitaphal (Hindi); Kadu
(Pashtu and Dari).
The gourd family Cucurbitaceae has a great range of species and sub-species, some
of which have evolved to survive in extreme climatic conditions, such as the Tsava
melons of the Kalahari which survive years of drought as seed. 
 Cucurbits are relatively robust and easy to grow, and from their origins in
northern Mexico and southwest America have spread throughout the warmer regions
of the globe. They were one of the first crops cultivated by man, and Cucurbita pepo
(vegetable marrow, gourd, pumpkin or summer squash) is thought to have been
cultivated since 7000 BC.
 Identification of all the many genera, species and sub-species is often difficult
and confusing, especially as different people often use different names to identify
the same crop. The plants are mainly the vigorous climbing or trailing types, and
there are both perennial and annual species. They are often named according to the
season in which they mature, or according to their shape, providing for example
the crookneck squash, (Turks) turban gourd and banana squash. To add yet further to
the confusion there are a number of local or popular names, such as Hubbards,
scallops and acorns.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK229
 Some Cucurbit species can provide anthelmintics (aka vermifuges), which cause
the evacuation of parasitic intestinal worms, in the form of a substance called
cucurbitine, contained in seeds of some cucurbits, C. maxima in particular.
 There are about 25 species in the genus Cucurbita; some are described below:
Summer Squash„also known as Summer Crookneck, Autumn Pumpkin,
Vegetable Marrow or Gourd - the immature fruits of C. pepo are eaten, used as a
vegetable.
Winter Squash„mature fruits of C. pepo, C. maxima, C. mixta and C. moschata.
Used as a vegetable, for baking, in pies, for jam and for animal food. Can be stored
for six months or more. Fine-grained flesh, and mild flavour, suitable for baking.
Pumpkin„normally have soft rinds and hard stalks, while marrows have hard rinds
and soft stalks. Like Winter Squash, Pumpkins are the mature fruits of C. pepo, 
C. maxima, C. mixta and C. moschata, and are used in pies and soups and as animal
forage. The coarse flesh and strong flavour mean that it is not normally eaten as a
vegetable.
English Marrow„fruits of C. pepo, eaten both immature (Courgettes/Zucchini) or
mature (for jam, and for storage and cooking in winter). 
Malabar or Fig-leaf Gourd C. ficifolia is a perennial species in frost free areas; it
has some local importance in Mexico and central and southern America. The plants
tolerate cool climates, and are cultivated at high altitudes in the tropics.
Cushaw (AyoteŽ in German and Spanish) C. argyrosperma (syn C. mixta)„mature
fruits with striped green and grey warty rinds, used for baking and for animal forage. 
Some other pumpkin-like species within the Cucurbitaceae family include:
Buffalo Gourd Cucurbita foetidissima„described in 2G, Under exploited CropsŽ.
Bottle Gourd Lagenaria siceraria (Syn. L. vulgaris)„the Calabash or White-
flowered Gourd. Normally not eaten,but used for containers, musical instruments,
fishing-net floats, rafts and spoons.
Loofah Luffa spp.„the Luffa, Vegetable Sponge, Sponge Gourd or Dishcloth
Gourd; the immature fruits are sometimes eaten (L.acutangula Chinese Okra), in
India and the East, but Loofahs are mainly used as highly efficient cleaning pads for
human skin, pots and pans, etc and as filters in industry (L. aegyptiaca).
Bitter Gourd Momordica charantia„the Bitter Cucumber, Balsam Apple/Pear;
Carilla Gourd etc is eaten as a vegetable and is also used in traditional medicine (p 294).
Chayote (Choyote) Sechium edule„the Christophine, Choko or Shu-shu; eaten by
the Aztecs, and nowadays grown throughout the tropics and sub-tropics. A vigorous,
perennial climbing plant with pear-shaped fruit 10…20 cm long, containing one large
flat seed 3…5 cm long. The large, tuberous roots (20% carbohydrate) and the fruits
are eaten, and sometimes also the young leaves & shoots.
Snake Gourd or Serpent Gourd Trichosanthes cucumerina (Syn. T. anguina). The
immature fruit is eaten, which is more nutritious than most Cucurbits. The ripe fruit
becomes red and is fibrous and bitter. Cucumber-like pods, up to 2 m long„a
weight is often tied to the end to encourage them to grow straighter.
 The following description applies to the four most commonly grown species of
Cucurbitaceae, Cucurbita pepo, C. maxima, C. mixta and C. moschata, unless
otherwise stated. These are widely found throughout Europe, the USA and the drier
parts of the tropics, especially in Africa.



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230TONY WINCH
PLANTING
Propagation: normally by seed, though Cucurbits can be grown from cuttings taken
from rooted nodes.
Soil: Cucurbits need strong rich soil with plenty of humus, manure being
particularly beneficial. The plants do not tolerate waterlogging and prefer slightly
alkaline conditions, so lime can usefully be applied when the soil pH is about 6 or
lower. They are, however, sometimes classified as having intermediate toleranceŽ
to acidity.
Seed rate: 3.5…5 kg/ha. Several seeds are often placed per station, then thinned to
the best plant.
Spacing: highly variable. Many types can be trained to grow upwards, on poles,
fences, bushes, etc. This way the plants use up vertical space, leaving space
underneath for other crops which benefit from the shade, and increase the amount of
food produced per unit area. This climbing habit can be very useful in small gardens,
window boxes, urban food growing allotments, etc. Climbing plants and their uses
are discussed in 1Gd.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: day-neutral (C. ficifolia, the Fig-leaved or Malabar Gourd, Chilicayotl
is short-day).
Growth period: Cucurbits are mainly fast growing and the immature fruit is usually
ready to harvest in 45…60 days; production often continues for a further two or three
months. Pods mature in about 3 or 4 months. 
Temperature: sub-tropical in origin, though many varieties have been selected for
temperate regions. Sensitive to frost„C. pepo types are the hardiest.
Rainfall: although Cucurbits need regular and plentiful water during their short
growing season they suffer in prolonged wet, humid conditions. Low or medium
rainfall regions, no more than about 1000 mm per year, are therefore preferred.
Pests: Root-knot nematodes can be harmful but are controlled with crop rotations.
Vine Borer hollows out marrow stems, causing the leaves to wilt and die. Cutworms
often attack young seedlings; protect with collars of cardboard around each plant.
The Cucurbit Fly is a major pest in Africa, and both the yellow/black adults and
larvae of the Cucumber Beetle attack cucumbers.
Diseases: the most serious are Fusarium Wilt, Anthracnose, Downy Mildew and
virus diseases.
YIELD
Immature fruits/pods of many Cucurbit crops yield about 7…12 MT/ha, mature
fruits/gourds, etc. yield about 10…30 MT/ha.
UTILISATION
€The vast range of uses for the remarkable Cucurbitaceae family is also
discussed in the introduction above. Human beings have grown and used this
crop for thousands of years; the Bottle Gourd, for example, was one of the first
crops to be cultivated, and can be a valuable crop to grow in certain
circumstances such as in refugee camps where there is a shortage of containers,
to hold both solids and liquids. 



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK231
€Fruits of the Cucurbits can be used for food either fresh, cooked, pickled,
candied, dried or in sauces and curries. Their tough skins can be used for
containers, water and drinking vessels, musical instruments, penis sheaths,
ornaments, floats for fishing and rafts, etc.
€Some species have seeds which are rich in oil and protein, which can be roasted
and salted to make a nutritious snack, or fried to make pepitos. Cucurbita pepo
seed kernels contain about 45% of an unsaturated fat, 25% protein and useful
amounts of minerals and the Vitamin B complex.
LIMITATIONS
€Very few„there is usually one or more species of Cucurbit which is adapted
and can grow in almost all of the extremes of climate, although they do need
warm growing conditions and most species are killed by frost.
€A further reason that Cucurbits are not more widely grown is that it can be
difficult to identify the most appropriate species or variety for a particular
location, or, even when this information is known, it is not always possible to
find a supply of enough good, reliable seed.
Okra
Abelmoschus esculentus (Syn. Hibiscus esculentus)
Bindi, Gombo, Gumbo, Ladys Finger, OkroKetmie {Comestible}, Gombo (French);
Rosenpappel, Gombo (German); Quesillo, Quimbomb (Spanish); Quiabo{chifre-de-
veado}, Caber (Portuguese); Bamies (Greece); Ochingombo (Angola); Bamia
(Sudan); Bhindi (Hindi); Binday, Layloo (Pashtu); Bamia (Dari)
Okra originated either in tropical Africa (Ethiopia and West Africa) or in India and
is now grown widely around the world in the hot lowland tropics and subtropics,
mainly for local consumption. The FAO estimate of the total global production in
2004 was 5 million MT, grown mainly in India, Brazil, Thailand, Turkey and Spain.
 It is closely related to the fibre crop Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus), to the Rose of
Sharon (H. syriacus or Althaea syriaca) and to the Roselle or Jamaican Sorrel
(H. sabdariffa var. sabdariffa and var. altissima). Together with Cotton, these are all
members of the cotton or mallow family Malvaceae.
The plant is an erect annual herb 1…4 m tall, with large, single, bright yellow and
red flowers. These develop into 10…30 cm long, slim, finger-like fruits, or podsŽ,
which are eaten as a vegetable when they are dark green and immature. The fruits
are usually five-sided in cross-section, normally green but sometimes red
(BurgundyŽ and Red OkraŽ) or white (White VelvetŽ) and have a sticky
mucilaginous texture inside.



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232TONY WINCH
 The nutritional value of okra is not sensational, about 86% water and only
approximately 2-3% protein, 0.2% fat, 3…10% carbohydrate, 1% fibre and 0.8% ash.
It contains reasonable amounts of carotene and about 21 mg/100 g Vitamin C.
Nevertheless okra has magical culinary properties, giving body to sauces, such as
enjoyed in the Creole dish called gumbo. The word gumboŽ is taken from the
Bantu word for okra.
 Plant breeding takes place mainly in India and in North America, where about
thirty named, improved varieties are available. F1 hybrids such as Annie Oakley and
Cajun Delight have been developed which normally outperform open pollinated
varieties.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed, which is round, about 5 mm in diameter, and dark green to
dark brown in colour. The seed should be soaked in warm water for 24 hours before
planting, sown directly into its growing place as it is easily damaged if seedlings are
transplanted.
Germination: this can be very slow, especially in cool soil (minimum 16°C), so
soak the seed - see PropagationŽ above. Germination rate normally falls rapidly, to
0% in 1 or 2 years even when stored cool and dry. There are about 15…18,000 seeds
per kg.
Soil: okra will grow in almost any soil, but prefers well-drained loams that are not
too moist. If sweetcorn grows well, then okra will also normally grow well. The
optimum pH is about 6…7 (intermediate toleranceŽ to acidity). Okra likes plenty of
potash so it can be a good crop to plant after a fire. Too much manure produces
many leaves but little fruit.
Seed rate: normally 2 or 3 seeds are planted on ridges, sometimes in furrows or on the
flat, and sometimes then thinned to the best plant. An average rate is about 4…8 kg/ha.
Seed is often soaked in water for a few hours before planting. Soil temperature and
moisture should be high.
Spacing: final spacing should be 60…90 cm between rows, 20…40 cm between
plants.
Depth: 2…5 cm
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: 60 …1 20 days to first harvest, which continues for another 2 or 3
months.
Temperature: many varieties of okra need four months of hot weather, and okra
only grows slowly when the temperature falls much below about 25°C. The plant is
killed by frost.
Rainfall: okra does not thrive with very heavy rainfall, and needs irrigation in arid
regions.
Altitude: okra is normally associated with the lowland tropics and subtropics.
Pests: Root-knot nematodes can cause big yield loss but can be controlled with crop
rotation, and some varieties have some resistance.
Diseases: Virus (Leaf Curl, Mosaic and Yellow Vein), Anthracnose, Powdery
Mildew, Dry Rot, Stem Rot, Leaf Spot, Leaf Blight and Black Leaf Mould. Botrytis
may arise in cold and damp conditions.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK233
Intercropping: okra is normally planted together with other food crops such as
cowpeas, maize, millet, sorghum, groundnuts and root crops.
YIELD
Okra pods are best eaten when young and fresh, when they are about 5…8 cm long
for most varieties. They should be picked regularly, every other day ideally, to
stimulate the plants to produce more. 
 Yields of fresh pods from intercropped okra are about 0.5…1 MT/ha, and from
monocultures about 4…7 MT/ha. The FAO estimate of the average global yield in
2004 was 6.4 MT/ha; the highest national average recorded was Cyprus at 22 MT/ha
and the lowest was Cameroon at 1.8 MT/ha.
 The yield of seed grown in a monoculture is about 500 kg/ha.
UTILISATION
€Okra are mainly grown for the tender, young, green fruit (pod). Traditional
varieties have pods 10…25 cm (4…10 in.) long, dwarf varieties are somewhat
smaller. The pods can be either boiled, deep-frozen, canned, pickled or sliced
and fried - eaten as a vegetable. Okra has the valuable attribute of strengthening
stews and soups, which are thickened by the okras mucilage, in dishes such as
Callaloo in Trinidad and Gumbo in many African countries, southern USA and
elsewhere. The pods can also be sliced and dried, while the young shoots and
leaves can be eaten or used as a herb.
€The ripe seed contains about 20% edible oil; sometimes used as a coffee
substitute.
€The foliage can be used as a low grade animal food.
€The stem fibre can be used locally but is of poor quality.
€The fruit (pod) is used to make a plasma replacement or blood-volume
expander.
€The leaves and immature fruit are used in the East to make poultices for pain
relief.
€The mucilage from the roots and stem is used for clarifying sugarcane juice, in
gur manufacture in India, and for sizing paper in China.
LIMITATIONS
€Okra has low nutritive value.
€The crop needs a relatively long, hot growing season.
€Germination rate of okra seed falls rapidly (1-2 years).
€The pods have a high mucilage content and can be sticky and messy to harvest
and cook.



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234TONY WINCH
Onion
Allium cepa
Oignon (French); Zwiebel (German); Cebolla (Spanish); Cebola (Portuguese);
Osapola (Angola); Piyaz (Hindi, Pashtu and Dari); Shinkurt (Amharic), Shinkurtee
(Oromifa)
Onions have been grown and enjoyed by humans since the very earliest days of food
production and were a popular staple food in ancient Egypt„the people who built
the pyramids were fuelled by the humble onion The ancients regarded its shape as
being a symbol of the universe, and the name onionŽ is thought to be derived from
the Latin unusŽ, meaning oneŽ.  
 Garlic and onions are surrounded with folklore regarding their magical
properties; among other attributes, they are reputed to increase fertility in men and
milk in nursing mothers, and to cure headaches when mixed with milk and vinegar.
 Onions are also highly beneficial in nutritional terms, providing a rich source of
Vitamins B1, C and E and certain trace elements. Their carbohydrate content ranges
from 5% to about 11%; 100 g of edible portion provides about 36 kcal energy value.
 Plants of the Alliaceae (Allium) family contain alkaloids known as Alliins. The
best source is garlic. Alliins are now known to have a positive effect on heart
diseases and also to prevent growth of malignant (carcinogenic) cells, and it can be
argued that the main role of the Onion family is anti-carcinogenic and
cardioprotective rather than nutritional.
 Shallots and onions are often regarded as being the same species, Allium cepa.
Other authorities argue that the shallot is a separate species, A. ascalonicum. The two
are both closely related to garlic (A. sativum), chives (A. schoenoprasum) and leeks
(A. porrum). Most species in this family are biennial, but are mainly treated as if they
were annuals. Other members of the Alliaceae family include ornamentals such as
hyacinth, tulip and lily of the valley. Unfortunately for food producers, the Allium
family sometimes behave like annuals, by setting seed„boltingŽ„in their first
year (1Ea). This tends to happen either if the variety is not adapted to the area or if
the growing conditions change for the worse, eg drought. The seed heads are, on the
other hand, highly decorative, and provide plentiful nectar for honey bees and other
insects. Other onion types such as the Welsh and Tree Onions (see below) are
perennial.
 Unlike most of the other vegetables onions are monocotyledons; they grow from
the base of their leaves, pushing their leaves up and out from this base.
Dicotyledons, by contrast, grow outwards from the edges of the leaves.
 Classification,or taxonomy, of the myriad onion varieties is not straightforward
and botanists continue to dispute the issue. The genus Allium was for many years
included in the Liliaceae family, though these days most botanists broadly agree that
onions should be placed in the Alliaceae family, and that there are three groups, or
botanical varieties, of Allium cepa:



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK235
_
var. cepa„the Common Onions. Commercially the most important group of
onions. This type of onion has been selected for thousands of years, so
botanically they are now highly variable. Includes the Spring or Bunching
Onions.
_
var. aggregatum„three types, which form lateral bulbs or shoots for vegetative
reproduction: 
Potato (Multiplier) Onion„only flowers rarely, but has lateral bulbs which
produce separate bulbs and tops in the second year;
Ever-ready Onion, Welsh Onion (The name comes from the German welsche
foreignŽ), 
Japanese Bunching Onion, Scallions (a name also used for Shallots) or Ciboule.
_var. proliferum„ the Tree Onion or Walking Onion which have only small and
undeveloped ground bulbs, but instead produce bulbilsŽ on the flower heads.
These bend down to the ground, take root and so propagate in this way in a
circular form around the parent plant. No seed is normally produced. Tree onions
are not important commercially.
The description below refers to the Common Onion Allium cepa var. cepa. Hybrid
seed of this species is widely used, while other Allium species mainly rely on non-
hybrid seed.
PLANTING
Propagation: either by seed or by dry bulbs, or setsŽ. When by seed, seedlings are
often transplanted at about 10…12 weeks (sometimes pruned, tops and roots, to 15…25
cm long). Small sets have a tendency to bolt less readily than larger sets.
Germination: viability falls rapidly in hot, humid conditions„may be 0% in less
than a year. F1 hybrid seed adapted to a wide range of conditions is readily
available.
Soil: soil should have plenty of nutrients in the upper 10 cm or so profile and should
retain moisture well. Onions adapt to most soils provided moisture is not limiting.
Intermediate toleranceŽ to soil acidity. The soil should ideally be well manured or
composted some months before the seed or sets are planted. In heavier soils, coarse
sand can be placed under each set.
Seed rate: 3.5…4.5 kg/ha when transplanted, 4…6 kg/ha when direct seeded. Approxi- 
mately 250,000 seeds/kg.
Spacing: 25…40 cm between rows for bulbs, 10 cm for salad onions; 7.5 … 10 cm
between plants.
Depth: 1…2 cm.
Other crops: they make good companion crops to other vegetables such as carrots,
as their smell can keep away harmful insects such as the Carrot Root Fly.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: sensitive to photoperiod. Most varieties are long-day, some are short-
day and some day-neutral. The long-day varieties that are adapted to temperate
regions will not form bulbs in the tropics, where short-day varieties are needed. The
photoperiod does not affect bolting, which occurs as a function of the onion variety
and the temperature. If newŽ (previously untested) varieties of onions are



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236TONY WINCH
introduced into an area it is wise if there is time to try them out for a year or so in a
small way, to compare them with the local types.
Growth period: 9…150 days depending on whether seed or sets are planted, the
season/temperature when planted, rainfall, day length and the variety chosen. Plants
tend to mature faster when they are stressed, such as when they are planted too close
together.
Temperature: varieties vary greatly in their temperature requirement, but low
temperatures encourage bolting, if the bulbs are large enough. Cool, wet weather is
best for early growth, with warm, dry weather for harvest.
Rainfall: requirement depends on variety. Often irrigated. If the soil is liable to
become waterlogged, onions should be planted on raised beds.
Pests: maggots of the Onion fly can stop the plants developing altogether. Seed-
sown crops are worst affected, setts rarely suffer badly. Eggs are laid in the bulbs of
young onions, the yellow maggots eat the bulb and the leaves go yellow and die. Hot
weather and dry soil favours spread of this pest. To prevent the flies from laying
eggs, either sprinkle soot or wood ash along the row, or spray water mixed with
paraffin (1 fluid ounce/1 gallon water). As soon as this pest is identified, infected
plants should be uprooted and burned, to avoid leaving maggots in the soil.
… Thrips„the leaves develop silvery blotches.
… Eelworms„very tiny worms, they make the tops of the plants wilt. Control by
burning/destroying all infested plants and strict rotation of 6 years without allowing
either other Allium species or Chickweed, an alternative host, to grow in or near the
infected area.
Diseases: Downy Mildew causes leaves to develop a greyish or violet coloured
streaks on the leaves, especially in humid conditions. Can be controlled with
Bordeaux powder.
… Purple Blotch„ leaves develop white sunken spots, which grow larger and
become purple with a yellow halo; Pink Rot & White Rot„roots are attacked, then
the leaves go yellow and die. Soil-borne; Yellow Dwarf Virus„worldwide. Yellow
streaks on leaves. Spread by contact, or by sets or aphids, but not by seed.
… Storage Diseases:
Black Mould (Aspergillus) and Neck Rot (Botrytis) are both common. Neck Rot
attacks onions in store. A grey mould forms on the skins, and later on the centres
turn brown. Prevent by thoroughly drying the onions before storing and store in a
cool airy place.
YIELD
In the tropics 7…10 MT/ha of freshly harvested onions is about the average, while
sophisticated farming systems in ideal growing conditions can produce more than 
40 MT/ha. 
 At the time of going to press, the worlds largest onion (7.03 kg, 15 lb 5 oz and
33 inches in diameter) was grown in Fife, UK in 1997. The variety name is Kelsae
Sweet Giant.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK237
UTILISATION
€Onions are eaten all over the world, both cooked and raw. The dried, or curedŽ
bulbs can be stored for several months. Alkaloids known as alliins are said to
have healing properties - see Introduction, above.
€Used in traditional medicine in many countries; to treat intestinal worms, high
blood pressure, gastroenteritis, and as antibacterial, antifungal and antitumour
agents.
€A home-made insecticide can be made by soaking the unused leaves and parts of
Allium species in water for a few days.
€ Allium species planted closely to other more vulnerable crops such as carrots
discourages insect attack on those crops. 
LIMITATIONS
€ Onion plants are very sensitive to photoperiod and temperature, with the result
that many varieties are only adapted to small, specific regions. This is important
to know when selecting varieties for introduction to a different country or region,
especially in the tropics. As a result of these specific requirements, onions are
liable either to bolt or to not form proper bulbs if they are grown in unsuitable
conditions.
€ Onions cross-pollinate very readily, so if possible food producers should obtain
seed from a reliable supplier and not grow their own seed, which may produce
poor and variable results.
€ The growing crop must be kept free of weeds, particularly in the early stages.
Peppers
Capsicum spp. 
Sweet Pepper, Green Pepper, Garden Pepper, Wrinkled Pepper, Capsicum, Cayenne,
Aji, Paprika; Poivron (French); Pepperoni, Paprikasdroten (German); Pimienta
(Spanish); Pimenta do Reino„for hot peppers, Pimentão„for sweet peppers
(Portuguese); Tchindungu {fruit}, Tchindungueiro {plant} (Angola); Lal Mirch
(Hindi); Shatta (Arabic); Tarsa Murch„for hot peppers, Shireen Murch„for sweet
peppers (Pashtu and Dari/Persian); Berberreh (Ethiopia)
There are so many species and sub-species of peppers that they have been classified
in several ways by different botanists at different times. These days two main types
or species are generally recognised, though the classification of the genus is very
confused:
Capsicum annuum„the Sweet Peppers, Bell Peppers, Paprika, Pimento, Jalapenos,
Chiltepin and Chillies. Mainly annuals, 30…150 cm tall. Fruits borne singly, 1…30 cm
long, green or purple and ripening to yellow, orange, red, brown or purple. There are
many botanical varieties, such as Cherry Pepper or Capsicum, Cone P., Cluster P.,
Guajillo P., Long P., Mulato P., Paprika, Papri Mild P., Sweet Pepper, Tree Chilli
(P. de Arbol), etc, which can intercross to produce intermediate types.
Capsicum frutescens„the Chillies or Bird Chillies, Hot and Cayenne Peppers,
Tabasco Peppers. Mainly shrubby, short-lived perennials (2…3 years). Fruits are
small, 2…3 cm, usually red and borne in groups. These are mainly the hotŽ or



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238TONY WINCH
pungentŽ peppers. The hotnessŽ depends on the presence of capsaicin, which
varies with both the variety and the temperature, the hotter the weather the hotter the
pepper. Tabasco sauce and Cayenne pepper are made from the fruits of Capsicum
frutescens.
Other species include the Habanero (JamaicanŽ, Scotch BonnetŽ) Pepper
C. chininse with square/heart shaped fruit 5 cm long, some very hot, Capsicum
pubescens, which includes the South American rocoto peppers and Capsicum
baccatum, which includes the South American aji peppers.
 Capsicum peppers are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae and should
not be confused with their unrelated namesake the White or Black Pepper, the
product of Piper nigrum. This type of pepper was grown in the West Indies and sold
at inflated prices in Europe, principally as the hot ingredient of curry powder.
Following the introduction of Capsicum peppers, their dried and ground up leaves
were used as a less expensive alternative.
Both types of Capsicum Peppers are good sources of vitamins, including B1 and
)
B2, as shown below:
Species / type Vitamin C / Vitamin A -
Ascorbic acid Carotene
(mg per 100 g) (IU per 100 g)
 C. annuum (83% moisture) 50…280 100…1200
 C. frutescens (10% moisture) 2…50 200…20,000
F1 hybrid seed of Sweet Peppers is readily available, and can be produced without
great cost. Capsicums are mainly self-pollinated, though about 16% cross-
pollination also occurs.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed, normally sown in nurseries, under glass unless the weather is
very warm, and transplanted at 4…6 weeks when 8…15 cm tall. Farmers can easily
produce their own seed, though there is often some cross-pollination. The seed can
also be taken out from any capsicum fruit you like the look of which you buy in a
shop, preferably from locally grown plants.
Germination: seed can remain viable for 2…3 years. 6…10 day germination time.
Soil: peppers adapt to a wide range, although ideally the soil should be well drained,
light, loamy and rich in lime. Moderately susceptible to salinity. Good response to
organic manures.
Seed rate: 140…170 seeds per gram. About 0.5…1.5 kg of seed produces enough
plants for 1 ha.
Spacing: 60…90 cm square grid, either on the flat, or on ridges if water-logging is
likely.
Depth: 0.5…1 cm.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK239
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: 60…90 days to the first harvest, then harvested at 1…2 week
intervals for 3…5 months. In the tropics and subtropics Capsicum peppers can
survive as perennials for a few years. The fruit should be cut off, not broken, leaving
about 2.5 cm of stem.
Temperature: slightly hardier than tomatoes, but still killed by frost. 19°C
minimum at flowering.
Rainfall: 600…1000 mm/a. Heavy rainfall or water-logging causes poor fruit-set,
and rotten fruit. Keep the fruits dry if possible, and any irrigation system should only
apply water at the soil level, on to the roots and not on to the fruit or plant.
Altitude: from sea-level to about 1800 m.
Pests: Thrips transmit virus diseases, and Cutworms attack seedlings.
Diseases: the two virus diseases, Mosaic and Leaf Curl, are the most serious. Loss
of yield can also be caused by Fruit Rot, Powdery Mildew, Bacterial Wilt and
Anthracnose. To avoid Anthracnose, peppers should be grown far away from beans;
if peppers do become diseased they become rotten and should be destroyed.
YIELD
The fruits of pepper can be either eaten fresh, or sun-dried for 3…15 days.
 Typical yields of dried fruit, from plants grown in a pure stand, are: 
 275…825 kg/ha rainfed, 1680…2750 kg/ha irrigated. {45 kg of fresh fruit = approx.
10…12 kg of dried fruit.}
UTILISATION
€Peppers are normally used as some kind of spice, but in different ways
depending on how hot, or pungentŽ, they are. Although they have low
nutritional value, apart from Vitamins A and C, they are valuable in making
staple foods such as sorghum more palatable to eat. Tepin Pepper C.annuum v.
aviculare„ tiny round fruit, is the hot one! (though some say the Red and
Orange Habanero Peppers are hotterƒ).
€Capsaicin improves digestion, helps heal stomach ulcers and is an antiseptic,
used on some sticking plasters.
€Extracts from certain Capsicums known as oleoresins are used to flavour ginger-
beer and other drinks. These are also used in some aerosols to deter muggers.
€Extracts from Capsicum frutescens (the Chillies or Bird Chillies) are used in
medicines, both internal and external.
€Cayenne pepper is used in some poultry food.
LIMITATIONS
€Peppers are killed by frost and are susceptible to Botrytis and other moulds.
€Too much rain causes poor fruit set and rotten fruit.
€The tap root is easily broken or damaged during transplanting.
€Water-logged soil, even briefly, causes leaves to fall, low fruit set and the fruits
to rot.



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240TONY WINCH
Tomato
Lycopersicon esculentum (Syn. Solanum lycopersicum)
Golden Apple, Love Apple, Peruvian Apple, Tomatl;
Pomme damour{Pomme des Mours = eggplant}, Tomate (French); Tomate
(German and Spanish); Pomodoro {Golden AppleŽ}(Italy); Tomate {Grande}
(Portugal/Brazil); Náhuatl (Mexico, from Aztec tomatl); Tammatter (Hindi);
Banjan-e Rumi (Pashtu and Dari); Ematya (Angola); Teemateem (Ethiopia)
Tomatoes were already widely cultivated in what is now Peru, Ecuador and Mexico
when the Spanish arrived there. When the Spanish introduced these new fruits to
Europe they were greeted with suspicion because they are members of the
Solanaceae (nightshade) family, which includes Deadly Nightshade, Tobacco,
Henbane, Thorn-apple and Belladonna, as well as potatoes, egg plants, peppers,
tamarillos {tree tomatoes}(Cyphomandra betacea) and tomatillos (Physalis
philadelphica and P. ixocarpa).
 Since then tomatoes have become one of the main vegetable crops in many parts
of the world, and global production is estimated at around 60 million MT per year.
 A large number of varieties are available, adapted to grow in a wide range of
climates and conditions, though they are not well suited to the wet tropics. Many of
the older varieties have an indeterminate growth habit (the cordon types eg
Gardeners DelightŽ and ShirleyŽ), while plant breeders have been mainly
producing determinate varieties (the bush types eg RomaŽ, MarmandeŽ and
semibush types eg GlacierŽ), particularly useful for mechanised harvesting.
 Tomatoes are almost always self-pollinated; in tropical regions, and sometimes
elsewhere, the stigma protrudes beyond the anthers, allowing some cross-pollination
to take place. Hybrid seed is commonly used.
 The plants are either half-hardy annuals or short-lived perennials in warm
climates. In temperate and other regions they are grown as annuals. They have stems
70…200 cm long, or even longer with some trailing (indeterminate) varieties, which
normally benefit from support, growing up sticks or string, against a wall, etc.
 The roots and leaves are poisonous, containing the neurotoxin solanine which
can cause vomiting and nausea if eaten to excess. Solanine is also found in potatoes,
and deadly nightshade; it has both insecticidal and fungicidal properties and is one
of the plant s natural defense mechanisms.  ,
 Stems can readily establish adventitious roots when they are in contact with
moist earth, which can be done deliberately by the farmer/gardener if there is a large
gap to be filled amongst the tomato crop, a procedure often known as layering.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed, though cuttings and graftings also work well. Seed is normally
planted in nurseries, indoors in temperate climates, and transplanted some 4 … 6 weeks
later when the plants are 15…20 cm tall. Seed can easily be obtained from home grown,
ripe tomatoes.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK241
Germination: tomato seed can remain viable for 3…4 years if it is stored cool and in
airtight containers. In real life these conditions are rarely found and seed viability
can fall dramatically, especially in warm and humid conditions. Germination
normally takes about 7…10 days. The effect of temperature on germination of tomato
seed is discussed in Section 1Fa, GerminationŽ, page 46.
Soil: should be fertile, and both compost and manure are highly beneficial. Lighter
soils usually signify shorter growing and fruiting periods than heavier, more
retentive soils. Optimum pH is about 6…7 (classified as having intermediate
toleranceŽ to acidity), and tomatoes need potash as young plants and a balanced
fertiliser with more Nitrogen as they grow.
Seed rate: About 250…500 g/ha., 250…350 seeds per gram. Rarely planted in large
areas by subsistence farmers. Often two or three seeds are planted together, then
thinned to the best plant. 
Plant spacing: very variable, but average spacings are 90 cm between rows and 30
cm between plants. The plants can grow very large if they have adequate space,
nutrients, light, etc.
Depth: 0.5…2 cm. The transplants should be buried well down deep to encourage
development of adventitious roots from the hypocotyl area.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
The taller, indeterminate types need support, and should be firmly supported on
poles, string, fences, etc. The side-shoots are normally pinched out, to encourage the
plant to set fruit and to make a tidy plant. The tip is also often pinched out after
the plants have developed a certain number of trusses, 4…10 or more depending on
the quality of the growing conditions.
 When the lower truss begins to ripen the lower leaves can be removed, especially
if they are showing signs of fungal disease, using a sharp knife or secateurs to
minimise wounding. This simple act not only increases the air-flow and light supply
to the lower canopy, but also makes the ripening tomatoes more easily visible to
growers when they check for weeds, pests, diseases, ripeness and readiness to
harvest.
Day length: tomatoes are day-neutral and in many parts of the world they are
cultivated 12 months of the year.
Growth period: three crops a year can be grown, in the tropics. In temperate
climates about 130 days are normally taken to produce the first ripe fruits.
Indeterminate types can then be continuously harvested over a very long period.
When winter approaches, the green fruits can be taken indoors and ripened in a
warm place.
Temperature: most varieties need 3 or 4 months of warm, frost-free weather. Some
new varieties can set fruit at low temperatures (down to about 4°C), others at high
temperatures (up to about 32°C). Frost sensitive.
Rainfall: badly affected by drought periods. Best in medium or low humidity.
Pests: Cutworms can bite off the young plants at ground level. Protect them with
collars of material (cardboard, stiff paper, etc) or wood ash, as with cabbages. Root-
knot nematodes are also common, especially in nurseries. Greenflies, Whiteflies and
Red Spiders can be damaging, especially in greenhouses. Regular sprayings with a
soap solution will keep their numbers down, and both Whitefly and Red Spiders can



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242TONY WINCH
be controlled by introducing their natural predators. Tomatoes are often protected
from pests by interplanting them in various configurations with protective
(companionŽ) plants such as onions, garlic and marigolds.
Diseases: Blight can be just as big a problem with tomatoes as with potatoes.
Controlled with two-weekly sprays of Bordeaux mixture (copper sulphate). 
Bacterial Wilt makes plants wilt very rapidly, without yellowing, and die; worse in
the wet tropics and in waterlogged soil. 
Fusarium Wilt. The plants wilt, the leaves become yellow. The symptoms of
Sclerotium Wilt are that plants wilt rapidly, and feathery white growths appear on
the stem, mainly at ground level.
Verticilium Wilt (sleepy diseaseŽ) is caused by a fungus which attacks the roots
and base of the stem, especially in cold wet soil. Earthing up larger plants with good
soil may save them, as new roots may be formed above the infection; otherwise the
plants droop and die. 
Septoria Leaf Spot causes brown water-soaked spots to appear on the leaves, which
may then fall off. 
Grey Leaf Spot may cause complete defoliation. 
Virus Diseases include Tobacco Mosaic, Spotted Wilt, Cucumber Mosaic, Curly
Top and Tomato Yellow Top„all spread by aphids and handling, and may originate
in nearby plants of other Solanaceae plants, or cucumbers. Some virus disease may
even originate in tobacco, so cigarette smokers may transmit this disease to the
tomato plants while working with them. 
Blossom End Rot occurs on the young fruit when vigorously growing plants are
stressed, by either too much or too little water, or when the roots are damaged. The
tip of the fruit dies and turns dark brown; the whole fruit may become infected. 
Greenback causes fruit to remain green and unripe on the base around the stalk;
unripe area appears hard. This disease develops most rapidly in strong sunlight, and
is associated with potash deficiency. Susceptibility to Greenback varies according to
the variety.
YIELD
The global average yield of tomatoes grown on a field scale is about 10 MT/ha.
More than 25 MT/ha is produced in more sophisticated systems.
UTILISATION
€The ripe fruit of tomatoes is eaten raw or cooked. It is about 90% water, but is
rich in Vitamins A, C and others as well as certain minerals, particularly
potassium (250 mg/100 g). Carbohydrate content (fructose and glucose) is about
3% and there is very little fat or protein.
€The green fruit is used in pickles and preserves.
€Tomatoes are processed into soup, juice, sauce, ketchup, purée, paste and
powder. There is also a very large tomato canning industry.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK243
€The seed contains 24% of a semi-drying oil„ discussed in 2C OilseedsŽ page
189„ which is extracted industrially from the pulp and residues of the canning
industry. The oil is used as a salad oil, and in soap and margarine; the
presscake is used for animal food and fertiliser.
LIMITATIONS
€Tomatoes are low in protein and calories.
€The plants are susceptible to diseases, especially in warm, humid conditions.
€The fruit is bulky and squashy, in other words it is not easy to transport.
€The storage time is short, unless the fruit is preserved. The Flavr SavrŽ type
was genetically engineered in the USA to delay the ripening process, so they
can be picked closer to full ripeness than most other tomatoes. Genetic
engineering (GM) has also lead to varieties with reduced amounts of the cell
wall softening enzyme, resulting in a longer shelf life.
2F. FRUITS
Botanically speaking, a fruit is defined as a mature, fertilised ovary (and its
associated structures) so that, for example, tomatoes, cucumbers and peppers are,
from a botanists point of view, fruitsŽ and not vegetablesŽ. Other examples of
fruitsŽ include drupes (stony seeded fruits) such as coconuts, cherries, peaches and
mangoes, legume fruits such as peanuts and beans, and multiple fruits such as
raspberries and mulberries.
 Most fruit producing plants and trees are insect-pollinated, which is the reason
they have such attractive flowers. The seed of fruits is normally dispersed by birds
and animals, which is the reason that they have attractive, edible fruits.
Seedless Fruit
Some varieties of some fruits naturally produce fruit without their flowers being
pollinated and fertilised. This produces seedless fruit and is known as
parthenocarpy; it occurs with, for example, banana, cucumber, grape, grapefruit,
orange, persimmon and pineapple. This natural phenomenon has been mimicked by
scientists in a process called induced parthenocarpy which manipulates various
growth hormones, applied either in paste form, or spray or by injection to produce
seedless fruit.
 Seedless fruit from non-parthenocarpic varieties and species, and also out of
season fruit production, is also induced artificially using pollen which is either dead
or has been altered, or is from another species. 
 Genetic engineering is also used these days, with watermelon for example. The
seed for seedless watermelon is produced by crossing a normal diploid watermelon
with one that has been genetically modified into a tetraploid state. The triploid plants
that result from this produce seedless fruit when pollinated by normal watermelon
pollen. 
 In common with vegetables, most fruits have only limited food value, though
they do normally contain useful amounts of vitamins and minerals. For many
subsistence farmers (and other food producers...) fruit can also serve as a useful cash
crop.



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244TONY WINCH
Most of the edible fruits grown in temperate climates are produced by seven plant
families:
€Rosaceae„apples, pears, quinces, cherries, peaches, nectarines, apricots,
plums, damsons, raspberries, blackberries and strawberries.
€Rutaceae„oranges, tangerines, kumquats, lemons, limes and grapefruit.
€Grossulariaceae„blackcurrants, red currants, white currants and gooseberries.
€Moraceae„figs, white and black mulberries, hops and breadfruit.
€Ericaceae„bilberries, blueberries, cranberries and huckleberries.
€Oleaceae„olives.
€ Vitaceae„grapes.
This section on Fruit describes seven of the tropical and sub-tropical fruits which
are the most likely to be useful for subsistence or small scale food producers in
warmer climates: 
avocado (Lauraceae), banana (Musaceae), citrus (Rutaceae), guava (Myrtaceae),
mango (Anacardiaceae), papaya (Caricaceae) and watermelon (Cucurbitaceae).
Other subtropical fruits include: coconuts (Palmae), dates (Palmae or Arecaceae),
figs (Moraceae), olives (Oleaceae), melons (Cucurbitaceae), langsat (Meliaceae)
and pineapples (Bromeliaceae).
Avocado
Persea americana (Syn. P. gratissima)
Alligator Pear, Avocado Pear, Butter Pear, Midshipmans Butter, Summer Pear,
Vegetable Butter Avocat, Avocatier, Poire davocat (French); Ahuacatl, Aguacate,
Cura, Cupandra, Palta„Mexico (Spanish); Abacate„fruit, Abacateiro „tree 
(Portuguese); Abocado (Ethiopia)
Avocados are the most nutritious of all the fruits, and have been called the butter of
the poorŽ. They are rich in Vitamins A, B complex, C, D and E, and some varieties
contain more than 3000 calories per kilogram. The mono-unsaturated oil (3…30%) is
very digestible.
 They originated in Central and South America, where they are still an important
food crop, and these days are also grown in most tropical and subtropical countries. 
 It is said that the name avocadoŽ comes from the Spanish aguacate, from the
Náhuatl/Aztec word for testicle, ahuacatl.
Avocados have recently become an important food crop. Global production in 2004
was estimated by FAO at 3 million MT, grown on a large scale in USA, South
Africa, Israel, Australia and Southeast Asia.



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There are three ecological races, or types, of avocado:
 Mexican„the leaves smell of anise. Small, slender, pear-shaped fruits (90…
240 g). The skin is light green and almost smooth. The most hardy of the three races,
it will survive down to minus 6°C. Not important commercially except when it is
hybridised with other types. Some botanists consider this type to be a separate
species, Persea drymifolia.
Gu  atemalan„medium-large (240…2200 g), compact, spherical fruits, on long
long stalks, with medium oil content of about 8…15%. Slightly less cold tolerant then
Mexican types, down to about minus 4.5°C. These are the so-called alligator types.
Sometimes classified as P.nubigena var. guatemalensis.
 West Indian„large fruits (1…2 kg), on short stalks, with light coloured leaves.
The least hardy type, killed below about minus 2°C, it is adapted mainly to the hot,
low tropics. Sometimes classified as P.americana var. drymifolia.
Hybrids between these three types are widely grown„for example, the well-known
varieties Sharwil and Fuerte are Mexican X Guatemalan hybrids. There are
hundreds of varieties available, although many of them are only adapted to small,
specific growing conditions. Some varieties, such as Collinson, depend on other
varieties for pollination; other varieties are not actually dependent on others but they
do benefit from the additional pollen provided by another variety.
 The plant is an evergreen tree, up to 20 m tall, with a shallow root system. The
growth of the tree is not regular, but occurs in flushesŽ alternating with periods of
very slow or zero growth. 
PLANTING
Propagation: although avocados do grow very easily from seed, commercial
growers use vegetative propagation in order to produce more uniform, predictable &
earlier maturing plants. Guatemalan types and their hybrids can be successfully
grafted onto rootstocks of all types, but Mexican type rootstocks are incompatible
with West Indian type grafting material (scion).
Germination: before planting seeds the skin should be removed, in order to produce
better and faster results. Seed normally remains viable for 2…3 weeks after removal
from the fruit, or longer still if it is stored in a cool place, in dry peat.
Soil: avocados will grow in a wide range of soils but they are extremely sensitive to
waterlogging, and for this reason are often planted on mounds or other high spots.
They are classified as having only intermediate toleranceŽ to salinity; optimum pH
is 6…7. 
 Fertiliser needs are similar to those for citrus, giving a good response to manure
and Nitrogen; a typical application would be 2 kg/tree/annum, at 3-month intervals,
of 12:6:10.
Spacing: 6…12 metres, depending on the variety. Some avocados are upright in their
growth habit, others have a more spreading type of growth.
Intercropping: sometimes with pigeon peas or other annuals, grown under younger
avocado trees. Cover crops or grass are often grown under the trees, to protect the
soil and also the trees shallow root systems.



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246TONY WINCH
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: with seedling trees, the first fruit can appear in 5…6 years.
Vegetatively propagated trees produce fruit earlier. They tend to be biennial bearing
ie they normally only produce a good crop of fruit every other year.
Temperature: requirements vary according to the type/race „ see introductory
paragraph, above.
Rainfall: minimum is about 750 mm per year, ideally not evenly distributed but
with alternate wet and dry seasons.
Pruning: little is necessary, other than to remove suckers from the rootstock and
any dead wood. Upright varieties often have the central shoot pruned so as to
produce a more spreading growth habit. The branches of spreading varieties are
sometimes thinned or shortened. The tops of tall trees are sometimes removed to
make harvesting easier.
Wind: windbreaks are often necessary, as the wood is soft and breaks easily.
Pollination: most varieties are cross-pollinated, mainly by bees. Some varieties
either require or benefit from another variety growing nearby to act as a pollinator,
especially in hot regions. Other varieties are self-fertile.
Pests: some damage can be caused by scale insects, mites and mealy bugs. The
sugar-cane root weevil can also give problems, in Puerto Rico for example.
Diseases: Root Rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi) is the most serious, sometimes
killing the tree; often associated with wet soil. Other diseases damage the fruit and
leaves, such as Cercospora Spot, Anthracnose (Black Spot) and Scab.
Trace elements: deficiency of Zinc and Copper can cause symptoms (1Cd, page
23).
YIELD
Typical weights of fruit:
 Mexican types: 90 g…240 g;
 Guatemalan types: 240 g…2.2 kg;
 West Indian types: 1…2 kg.
The average yield of avocado is 100-500 fruits per tree per annum. In North
America and elsewhere, good orchards can produce more than 13 MT/ha per annum.
UTILISATION
€Avocados are normally eaten as a salad fruit; they are most nutritious when
eaten raw, such as in guacamole, ice cream and milk shakes.
€The pulp can be preserved by freezing.
€Avocado oil is used in cosmetics and toiletries.
€The cocktail avocado is grown in Chile, South Africa and Israel. The bullet
shaped fruit is 5-6 cm long and contains no seed.
LIMITATIONS
€Avocado trees have a tendency to biennial bearing habit.
€With seedling trees, 5 or 6 years may elapse before the first fruit is produced.
€Seedling trees are not always satisfactory, while vegetative reproduction
techniques require specialist knowledge.
€Some varieties need other varieties as pollinators.



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€The trees do not tolerate waterlogged soil or excessive wind.
€The root system is shallow and so is easily damaged, when intercropped for
example, and the trees need regular rainfall or irrigation.
€The fruits must be already almost mature before they are picked; they then bruise
and rot easily in transport, and have a short storage life.
Banana
Musa spp.
Platano (Spanish); Fig (West Indies); Kela (Pashtu & Dari/Persian); Muz (Ethiopia)
More bananas are grown every year than all other fruits except grapes. In 2004,
FAO estimated the global world production to be 71 million metric tons (MT), of
which only about 12 million MT reach international trade. Nevertheless, bananas are
big business; in terms of the world trade in agricultural produce they are fifth, after
cereals, sugar, coffee and cocoa. About two-thirds of world exports are controlled by
three corporations, Chiquita, Dole and Del Monte which in effect between them
control the supply and pricing of that sector of exported bananas.
 About half of the bananas grown are eaten as a raw fruit, and the other half, the
plantains, are eaten as a cooked vegetable. Plantains are a truly multi-purpose crop,
as described in the penultimate paragraph of this piece, UtilisationŽ.
 When grown in large plantations, insect and disease damage is controlled by
applying a cocktail of insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and disinfectants. In
poorer countries, in central America for example, excessive amounts are often
applied which results in serious health problems for many of the workers in the
plantations, as well as accumulation in the soil of contaminants left in the plant
residues, reduction of biodiversity and even soil sterility. Organic methods of
production will inevitably increase dramatically as consumer awareness also
increases.
 Outside of the tropics two varieties only predominate: Gros Michel, which is
susceptible to Panama disease (wilt) and leaf spot (Sigatoga) but tolerant of
nematode worm; and Cavendish which is resistant to wilt but susceptible to leaf spot
and worms. Varieties with good resistance to all three have not yet been developed.
 Nutritionally, one banana provides more than an adults daily requirements of
potassium (about 380 mg) and also a large amount of energy (90 calories per 100 g).
Ripe fruit (75% water) contains up to 22% carbohydrate, mainly as sugar, and is a
good source of Vitamins A and C.
Botanical Classification, or taxonomy, of bananas is complicated, and various
versions exist. The following interpretation is one of the most widely accepted of
this complex plant family: 



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248TONY WINCH
 Bananas are members of the Musaceae plant family, which has two Genera,
Ensete and Musa:
Ensete„there are six or seven different species, grown in tropical southeast Asia
and Africa. In south Ethiopia Ensete ventricosa is a staple food crop, grown mainly
at 1500…3000 m above sea level. Known as Ostafrik Anische or Wildbanane in
German. The pseudostems and corms are cut up, and the pulp either eaten fresh or
fermented in silos and then usually made into bread. Sacks and ropes are also made
from the fibre extracted from the pseudostems. The plant is harvested about 4…5
years after propagation from buds, before the inflorescence (flower head) is formed,
which would use up the starch.
Musa„about 40 species, divided into five groups:
… Eumusa„the largest group, with 13…15 species, including the Common Banana
Musa sapientum; also the most important and widely distributed group, including
the sub-group the Plantains, described below.
… Callimusa„small plants, grown in Indochina, Malaya and Borneo.
… Rhodochlamys„grown from India to Indonesia, sometimes as ornamentals.
… Australimusa„grown from Queensland to the Philippines. Includes the species
Musa textiles, Manila hemp, or abaca, used for making marine rope, fishing gear, in
the mining industry, in making strong sacks and paper (used for example in movable
paper walls in Japanese houses), etc. Also the Feci banana, eaten in Polynesia.
… Incertae sedis„of uncertain position/seat„ a taxonomic group where its broader
relationships are unknown or undefined. Includes the wild indigenous species Musa
ingens (the worlds tallest herb).
 The Eumusa group provide virtually all of the edible bananas that are cultivated,
and is the group which is described below.
Plantains
An important sub-group of the Eumusas (sometimes classified as a separate species,
Musa paradisiaca, as opposed to the CommonŽ banana, Musa sapientum),
plantains provide an important food source in south India, Africa and tropical
America. They are not important anywhere East of India except for some Horn
PlantainŽ types grown eastwards to the Phillippines and the Pacific.
 Their fruits are acidic, starchy and unpalatable until cooked. Nutritionally they
are similar to the sweet potato.
 The plants are resistant to the notorious Panama Disease, and also Leaf Spot, but
are very susceptible to attack by the Banana Weevil (or Stem Borer). For details of
the utilisation of plantains, see the penultimate paragraph of this sub-section on
bananas, UtilisationŽ.
Botany of Bananas
Plants of the Musa species are large, perennial, tree-like herbs 2…9 m tall, with
tightly rolled overlapping leaf sheaths forming a pseudostem of about 30 cm
diameter, above the basal corm. The root system is very shallow, with most of the
adventitious roots formed in the top 15 cm of the soil profile, and spreading laterally
for 4…5 m.



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 About 2 months after planting a sucker, which was itself about 7 months old at
planting, it develops a growing point at the base in the heart of the pseudostem
which is transformed into an inflorescence. This is carried up from close to ground
level by the true stem. In this flower head (inflorescence) the first rows of flowers
produced are the larger female ones and the later flowers produced are the smaller
male ones (there may be intermediate types in between, either hermaphrodite or
neuter). The male flowers of most commonly grown varieties serve no useful
function, as pollination rarely occurs. In wild species pollination is done mainly by
bats, and also by birds and large insects.
 About 2…4 months after the shootingŽ of the bunch it is ready for harvest. The
fruit bunch is sometimes called a stemŽ; each cluster of fruits at a node is a
bunchŽ, and the individual fruits are the fingersŽ.
PLANTING
Propagation: vegetative, except in breeding work. Five types of planting material
are used in different parts of the world:
… Peepers„very young suckers, with scale leaves only.
… Sword suckers„small, pale, pointed leaves, planted out when about 75 cm tall.
… Maiden suckers„taller, with broad leaves. Lifted from the parent plant at 5…8
months old, the central meristem is destroyed, the roots are trimmed, and the sucker
cut back to 10… 15 cm above the corm.
… Corms„these are dug up, the aerial parts removed, and pieces of 2 kg or bigger
are planted 25… 30 cm deep.
… Water suckers„originating near the soil surface, with large, wide, green leaves.
The first crop after planting is known as the plant cropŽ; subsequent crops are
known as ratoonsŽ.
Planting hole: should be at least 60 cm deep and wide, and filled with topsoil mixed
with manure or compost and about 250 g of single superphosphate or equivalent.
Spacing: in pure stands:
… Fertile soils„3.6 × 4.5 m between plants (480…750 plants per hectare);
… Less fertile soils and in dry areas„3.6 × 2.7 m between plants (890 plants per
hectare);
… Dwarf varieties„2.4 × 2.4 m between plants (1680 plants per hectare).
Soil: a wide range are suitable, but should be pH 5…8 (pH 5.5…6.5 is optimum,
bananas are classified as tolerantŽ to acidity), free draining but still retentive, and
fertile. Fertiliser should be applied even in the most fertile soils. As a rough guide to
fertiliser needs, the critical levels of phosphate and potash are: P205 20 ppm, K2O
300 ppm. About 250 g of ammonium sulphate scattered around the plant, and 30…60
cm away from the stem, is often beneficial, applied once or twice during the rains. A
good crop of bananas usually indicates good soil.
Interplanting: very common, with other food crops such as maize, beans, sweet
potatoes, pumpkins, yams, coconuts, sugar-cane, etc. Bananas are also used as a
nurse crop for cocoa. They are not suitable for interplanting with coffee as the
bananas use up too much of the available soil nutrients. 



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250TONY WINCH
 When working the soil, care should be taken to avoid any damage to the banana
plants shallow root system.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: no known response.
Growth period: for the plant crop, 9…18 months from planting to harvesting,
depending on variety, growth conditions, etc. From the shooting of the inflorescence
to harvest, 2.5…4 months. The period between plant crops varies from 4…6 years
(commercial fields) to 10 years (central America) to 50…100 years (traditional
farming). In theory, banana fields can be in permanent production due to the
continuous production of suckers, but in practice are rarely kept for more than 60
years. Sometimes the plants are replanted every two years.
Ripening of the fruit is often done artificially after the fruit has reached the country
of destination by exposure to ethylene gas.
Temperature: 27…29°C is optimum. Growth is reduced below 21°C. Frost sensitive.
Rainfall: to grow well, needs a minimum of 25 mm/week. When irrigated, 150…200
mm/month are applied. Optimum annual rainfall is about 2000…2500 mm, but some
varieties are grown with much less or much more water than this.
Wind: can be a major cause of crop loss, by tearing the leaves and, more
importantly, by breaking and uprooting plants. Windbreaks are therefore often
necessary.
Weeds: important to remove all perennial weeds, and also to provide a mulch.
Bananas are very susceptible to hormonal weedkillers, though Dalapon and some
others can be used.
Mineral deficiencies: symptoms are commonly seen when insufficient fertiliser is
used (see Section 1Cd, page 23):
… Calcium (Ca)„leaf margins become yellow, then brown„similar to Potassium
deficiency;
… Potassium (K)„leaf margins become yellow, then general leaf necrosis
(unprogrammed death of cells or tissue); small bunches with thin fingers. Can be
shown up by nematode attack;
… Zinc (Zn)„bunchy tops;
… Phosphorus (P)„slow growth, then leaf margins become scorched and the base
of the corm roots; leaves are short; few hands and fingers per bunch;
… Nitrogen (N)„slow, stunted growth; leaves become yellowish;
… Iron (Fe)„young leaves chlorotic between the veins. If severe, general chlorosis.
… Magnesium (Mg)„young leaves chlorotic between the veins; leaf margins wavy.
If severe, leaves become dark brown and hang down, and leaf sheaths split.
Altitude: sea level up to about 1800 m is optimum. They can grow up to about
2400 m but development is then normally slow and weak due to low temperatures.
Pruning: a controversial subject, but in general pruning to 3…6 stems produces
earlier, larger bunches and plants with better resistance to Borer (Weevil) attack.



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Pests: more than 200 insects like to eat bananas and banana plants. The most
important are as follows:
… Banana Weevil (Stem Borer or Beetle)„the most serious, all over the world,
especially in neglected plantations. Adult weevils live for up to two years in the
stems, the larvae burrow into the corms, leaving tunnels visible if the plant is cut
open; the plants are weak, yields are low. Control: plant clean suckers and treat them
with insecticides, cut off old stems at ground level and cover with soil, chop up the
old stems and spread them on the soil as a mulch, and encourage healthy plant
growth with fertiliser, mulching, weeding, etc. Traps can be made with old stems
split and placed around the clumps „ the insects can be collected from them by hand.
… Thrips„fruit skins become discoloured or cracked. Very difficult to control.
… Nematodes„a worsening problem in some areas where the tolerant Gros Michel
clones are replaced with the susceptible Cavendish clones. The roots are destroyed,
leading to wilting and sometimes plants falling over. 
Control: plant only clean material, and crop rotations, such as with sweet potatoes.
DBCP is sometimes used, 2…4 times a year, but this chemical is very dangerous and
has caused widespread sterilisation in plantation workers from Central America and
the Caribbean to the Philippines and West Africa.
… Other pests„Fruit Scarring Beetle (North America), Scab Moth (Pacific) and
aphids, which carry and spread virus diseases.
Diseases: four of the most common diseases are described below:
… Panama Disease„one of the most catastrophic diseases in the world, it is found
in most countries where bananas are grown, especially in acid soils. The fungal
spores can survive in the soil for 20 years or more. Symptoms: the outer, lower
leaves become yellow, then hang down and collapse; the inside of stems and
rhizomes become purple. 
Control: ideally with resistant varieties, also plant clean material into clean soil, or
flood fallow to 1…2 metre depth for six months, or increase soil pH by liming, or
improve drainage.
… Leaf Spot (Black Sigatoga)„a serious problem in the tropics, causing yield loss
and premature fruit ripening. Symptoms: faint yellow spots, first on the leaves, the
spots become necrotic at the centre and join together in lines parallel to the lateral
veins; leaf margins die. Control: plant only resistant varieties, or spray Bordeaux
mixture or mineral oil sprays every 2…4 weeks at 11 litre/ha.
… Cigar End Rot„fruit tips look like the ash on the end of cigars. Worse with cool
nights. Control: remove the end of the inflorescence, beyond the developing fruits.
… Bunchy Top Virus„occurs in the Pacific, Far East, Australia, Egypt and the
Congo. Symptoms: green streaks on the secondary veins on the underside of leaves
and on midribs and petioles (leaf stalks); lower leaves become brittle and stunted;
petioles are short, creating a bunchyŽ effect. The fruits are spoiled, often unsale-
able. Controlled by planting clean material and controlling aphids.
Other diseases include Black Leaf Streak, Bacterial Wilt (Moko disease), other 
virus diseases and a range of fruit rots and spots.



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252TONY WINCH
YIELD
With poor management, the plant crop usually gives the best yield, with lower and
lower subsequent yields. 
Wit h good management the reverse is true; yields from the early ratoons are 
are usually higher than for the plant crop. Also, as less time is taken to produce a
ratoon crop, the yields per unit of person-hours labour are greater.
An  average annual yield is about 1000…1200 bunches/ha, or 16,000 to 27,600 kg/ha,
(*)
assuming an average bunch weight  of 16…23 kg. The FAO estimate for the world-
wide average in 2004 was 16 MT/ha; the top national average was recorded in
Guatemala (52.5 MT/ha) and the lowest was in the Cayman Islands (1.3 MT/ha).
With good   crop husbandry, including irrigation if necessary, 75 MT/ha is
possible.
(*)
In commercial plantations, the aim is to produce about nine hands per bunch,
weighing between about 20 kg and 65 kg.
UTILISATION
€Raw, eaten as fruit„about 50% of bananas are consumed this way. They are
especially useful for children and for people of all ages with gastric complaints.
€Plantains„these account for the other 50%. They are normally peeled, cooked
and then mashed„   in Uganda this is known as matoke. They can also be boiled
in their skins and then peeled, or peeled and roasted in hot ashes, or fried with
maize, beans, potatoes, etc. To store, they can be peeled, dried and ground into
flour (sometimes called ugali).
€Brewing„very popular in certain parts of Africa. Flour made from sorghum or
finger millet is often added to the brew, which is rich in Vitamin B and other
useful nutrients, not to mention the alcohol itself.
€Dried products„many different types are made: Banana chips, for which the
beer varieties are mainly used„the mature, unripe fruits are sliced and dried; in
marginal areas such as parts of East Africa they are used as a famine reserve
food. Sweetmeats, the so-called banana figs, are made from dried slices of ripe
fruits. Flour is made from dried unripe fruits, and powder is made from dried
ripe fruits.
€Male buds„in some places such as southeast Asia the ends of the inflorescence
are eaten as a boiled vegetable. Occasionally available in specialised shops in
the West.
€Animal fodder„various plant parts can be fed to animals, an important aspect
for some groups such as the Wachagga in Tanzania.
€Green leaves„used for plates, umbrellas, wrapping material, etc.
€Dried leaves„used for tying material, thatching, screens, plant pots, head
protection, etc.
€Fibre„extracted from the pseudostem, it is used for fabrics, rope, tea bags, etc.
€Shade crop„ commonly used for cocoa and coffee plants.
€Ink„a brown indelible ink can be extracted from the sap.



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LIMITATIONS
€Bananas are susceptible to damage by both insects and diseases, so that a
cocktail of chemicals may be applied, often to the detriment of the plantation
workers.
€The current oligarchical position of the big three banana companies can be a
threat to the entire global market, and allows, all too frequently, unacceptable
working conditions regarding pay and health care to be imposed on their
employees.
€Sophisticated, expensive equipment is needed to store and transport the fruit in
large quantities.
€The plants can be badly affected by wind and/or cold weather.
€A long time elapses from planting to the first harvest, and the plants then need a
high level of management and labour to maintain yields.
€Growing requirements of the plants are quite stringent: good soil and/or high
fertiliser input, high light intensity and temperature, and a large and regular
supply of water.
Citrus
Citrus limon„lemon (citronŽ in French)
C. aurantifolia„lime (limetteŽ, citron vertŽ in French)
C. sinensis„sweet orange
C. aurantium„sour (Seville) orange
C. paradisi„grapefruit
C. reticulata (Syn. C. nobilis)„tangerine, mandarin, satsuma (and Rangpur lime)
C. maxima (Syn. C grandis, C. decumana or C. maxima)„pomelo (shaddock)
C. medica„citron (cédratŽ in French)
Poncirus trifoliata„trifoliate orange
Hybrids: four examples:
C. reticulata X C. paradisi„tangelo, C. reticulata X C. sinensi -s„tangor
C. reticulata X Fortunella spp.„calamondin (Citrofortunella microcarpa)
C. sinensis X Poncirus trifoliata„citrange
Citrus species have been cultivated by man since the earliest days, selecting the
plants with the juiciest fruits and the best flavours. Evidence has been found in
China of the cultivation of citrus fruit in about 2200 BC. The various species
hybridise readily, and there are an enormous number of complex hybrids. Mutations
(bud sports or bud mutants) may also arise in different parts of the same tree, and
within each species there are a large number of varieties.
 They are grown in the tropics, subtropics and warm temperate regions; limes,
grapefruits and pomelos (shaddocks) are more suited to the wetter areas, oranges and
mandarins preferring drier, cooler conditions. The kumquat (Fortunella spp.) is not
strictly a citrus fruit but is a member of the same family, the Rutaceae. The orange
or golden yellow fruit is ovoid or round, 1…4.5 cm in diameter and contains about
9% sugars and 39 mg/100 g Vitamin C.



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254TONY WINCH
 In certain American English speaking areas the word pomeloŽ (a fruit with a
large yellow, grapefruit like fruit) is used to describe the grapefruit. The true
pomelo, or shaddock (C. maxima) has pale green or yellow fruit, when ripe, larger
than grapefruit.
 Citrus are one of the most difficult fruit trees to cultivate, and they normally need
careful attention if they are to give consistently good yields of fruit.
PLANTING
Propagation: seed is generally not suitable as it contains out-pollinated genes and
so it rarely breeds true. Instead marcottageŽ (for limes, and sometimes mandarins
and pomelos), cuttings or graftage is done. Marcottage uses the same principle as
layeringŽ„soil is tied onto a branch using polythene or sacking, sometimes the
bark is also ringed at this site, which encourages roots to grow. 
Grafting onto rootstocks is more common, the rootstock itself being grown
from seed. There are many types of rootstock, listed below, the first three being the
most commonly used: Sour Orange, mainly for lemons and oranges, grown in
medium and heavy soils; the root system is deep and vigorous. Rough Lemon, a
lemon × citron hybrid, has a shallower root system for use in lighter, sandy soils;
used in the Caribbean and tropical America; generally produces poor quality fruit.
Sweet Orange, for rich, well drained soils; susceptible to foot rot; generally
produces lower yields than rough lemon with mandarins and oranges but gives good
fruit quality. Rangpur Lime, easy to transplant; tolerates wet conditions; resistant to
gummosis and tolerant to tristeza virus; used in South America and the Far East.
Mandarins, widely used in Asia; some resistance to tristeza, quite resistant to foot-
rot and gummosis; mainly in humid tropical regions. Trifoliate Orange, the best for
cold conditions; tolerates some waterlogging; resistant to gummosis and tolerant to
tristeza; used in Japan for Satsuma oranges. Citrange, used in cold conditions where
resistance to tristeza is necessary. Grapefruit, not much used, best when used for
other grapefruit and pomelo varieties; not very compatible with oranges. Limes, not
much used, except in Israel and Egypt; tend to develop and mature quickly
producing early fruit but they are short-lived and many are sensitive to foot-rot.
Citropsis, a native citrus in the Congo region of Africa, has potential as a rootstock
due to its high resistance to foot-rot and gummosis.
Soil: citrus species will grow on most soil types provided they are neither saline nor
waterlogged. Optimum pH is 5…7. Magnesium limestone is beneficial if the pH falls
below about 5. Manure and nitrogenous fertilisers are very beneficial. With infertile
soil, limes will sometimes survive where other species fail. All species respond well
to fertilisers and manure„Nitrogen is the most important nutrient; excess Potash
(K) can be harmful. 
 In poor soils, secondary nutrients such as Sulphur, Calcium and Magnesium and
some trace elements may need to be applied as well as the major nutrients, N, P
and K.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK255
Spacing:
Type Distance (m) Trees/ha
 Orange … small varieties 6280
 large varieties 10100
 Grapefruit …  small varieties & grafted 9120
 large varieties 1270
 Mandarins … marcotts 4.5 × 6 280…500
 small varieties 10100
 Pomelos … large varieties 1270
 Limes … grafted34… .5500…1000
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: day-neutral.
Growth period: the trees normally produce their first fruit in 3…6 years.
Temperature: growth is much reduced below about 13°C and virtually stops below
10°C. Maximum tolerated is about 40°C. In order of their hardiness (tolerance to
cold), with the least hardy species (Citron) first: citron, lime, lemon, grapefruit,
sweet orange, sour orange, mandarin, kumquat, trifoliate orange.
Rainfall: 900 mm/a. minimum without irrigation, which is often used, especially for
young trees. Not suited to the humid tropics„high humidity increases damage by
pests and diseases. Mandarins are the species most adapted to high rainfall and
humidity.
Pruning: as a minimum, this should be done in the nursery and on 2… 3 year-old
trees, to form an open canopy. Suckers and dead wood should be removed.
Wind: citrus species do not tolerate high winds, so windbreaks should be provided
if necessary.
Altitude: mainly from 0… 600 m. On the equator, they do not grow well above about
1800 m.
Pests: damage can be caused by: scale insects, aphids, mealy bugs, mites, thrips,
fruit flies, moth borers and the false coddling moth. It has been shown that
indiscriminate insecticide use can create more problems than it solves, discussed in
1J, page 78.
Diseases: Foot-Rot (Root-Rot) (Phytophthora spp.)„worse in high humidity and
in poorly drained soils. Sour orange and mandarin rootstocks show some resistance.
Gummosis, the exuding of gum, is also caused by Phytophthora. Tristeza Virus
(Quick DeclineŽ) is the most serious and widespread of the virus diseases. Can be
partially controlled with the careful use of insecticides in nurseries, Sweet Orange,
Rough Lemon and some Mandarin rootstocks, and burning of diseased or suspected
branches or entire trees. Citrus Scab is caused by the fungus Elsinoe fawceti,
controlled with copper fungicides (sprayed before and after flowering) and resistant
types. Worse in cool conditions. Sweet Orange and lime are very resistant; sour
orange, lemon and some grapefruit species are very susceptible. Melanose is
widespread. Brown, raised pustules on young twigs, leaves and fruits, especially on
mature trees of all Citrus species. Controlled with copper sprays, remove all
dead/diseased wood.



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256TONY WINCH
Trace Element Deficiencies: see also Section 1Cd, page 23:
… Boron: lumpy fruit, leaves with water-soaked spots. Copper: die-back with gum
pockets or blisters on young growing branches, leaves and fruit. Then leaves and
fruit drop off, and twigs become distorted. Treat with sprays of 5 kg copper sulphate
in 10 kg lime per hectare. Iron: chlorosis of leaves, veins remain green.
Magnesium: very common. Chlorosis of whole leaf. Control: Epsom salts
(magnesium sulphate). Zinc: known as Mottle LeafŽ, it is fairly common. Leaves
become mottled and reduced in size. Control: spray 2.25 kg zinc sulphate and 1.13
kg slaked lime in 455 litres of water … 4.5 litres per tree. Molybdenum: Yellow
SpotŽ, controlled by adjusting the soil pH if possible to pH 5.5…6.5.
YIELD
Highly variable, according to species, variety, soil, climate, etc. 
Average yields, in kg/ha/year, are, approximately: limes 25…80, oranges 150…1800,
and grapefruit 150…1000.
UTILISATION
€Citrus plants are mainly grown for the juicy fruits. They contain almost 90%
water, and variable amounts of sucrose, glucose and fructose.
€The skins are a source of pectin, used in jam making and for the ascorbic
acid/Vitamin C (90-150 mg per 100 g edible portion).
€Lemons and sour oranges provide citral and limonene, used in perfume
manufacture.
LIMITATIONS
€Citrus plants need to be carefully and skilfully grafted, and also pruned in the
early stages.
€Intolerant of poorly drained or saline soils, and low temperatures.
€Susceptible to attack by many pests and diseases.
€Trace element deficiencies are common, and these are not always easy to
accurately diagnose and/or treat.
€3…6 years before any fruit is produced.
Guava
Psidium guajava
Goyave (French); Guayaba (Spanish); Goiaba {fruit}, Goiabeira {tree} (Portuguese);
Amrood, Jamphal (Hindi); Zaituna (Amharic, Ethiopia); Banjiro (Japanese)
The guava tree is indigenous to tropical America where it still grows wild. It is now
found throughout the tropics and subtropics. It spreads easily, often by birds
distributing the seeds, and can become a weed in some places such as Fiji and
Queensland. The name GuavaŽ comes from the Spanish guayaba, from a South
American Indian word.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK257
 The largest producer of guava is India, and they are also grown widely in the
USA, Mexico, Pakistan, Colombia and Egypt.
 The fruit contains variable amounts of Vitamin C, ranging from 23…492 mg/100 g,
according to the variety and the growing conditions. Fruits also contain about 5%
total sugars (glucose and fructose) and useful amounts of iron, calcium, phosphorus
and Vitamin A and B.
 The following description applies to the Common Guava, Psidium guajava.
There are a few other species of Psidium which have edible fruit, the most important
of which is the Strawberry Guava (or Cattley), P. cattleianum (syn. P. littorale),
which has two types, one with bright yellow fruit and the other with reddish purple
fruit; often grown as a garden plant, but not important commercially. 
 There are dozens of other Psidium species, including the Guisaro, Cás, and the
Brazilian Guava, each with many local names and synonyms. This topic is well
documented online at: www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au.
 The Pineapple Guava (the Feijoa or Guavasteen), Feijoa sellowiana, is a
native of cooler parts of southern South America, sometimes cultivated for its fruit.
Aka Goiaba do Campo & Goiaberra Serrana (Portuguese), or Guayaba Chilena
(Spanish).
 The Common Guava Psidium guajava plant is a shrub or small tree, 3…10 m tall,
with many branches produced close to the ground, and a shallow root system. The
guavas are members of the myrtle family Myrtaceae, which grow almost exclusively
in hot and rather dry regions.
 About 35% of the flowers are cross-pollinated by insects, the other 65% are self-
pollinated. The fruits are very variable in size (2…8 cm) and flavour, and all have a
characteristic musky smell, which normally disappears when they are cooked. 
 A wide range of improved, named varieties are available in a number of
countries.
PLANTING
Propagation: can be done by seed, though this produces variable and unpredictable
results and so vegetative reproduction is preferable. Veneer grafting, using young
vigorously growing plants as rootstocks, is the preferred method.
Germination: seeds remain viable for about a year; germination takes 2…3 weeks.
Soil: guava adapts to a wide range, including poor, acidic soils and even tolerates
some waterlogging. It responds well to fertiliser, especially Nitrogen„an 8:8:8
compound is often used.
Spacing: often grown as single, backyard plants. Ideally, about 5…7 metres apart, in
squares.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: the first fruits appear in about two years, the production increasing
for about six to eight more years. Trees can continue producing fruit for 30 years or
more.
Temperature: guava trees are susceptible to frost. They prefer warm weather and
can tolerate extreme heat.



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258TONY WINCH
Rainfall: one or more varieties of guava can be found to grow in most rainfall
zones, though ideally they should receive about 1000…3000 mm/a. They need plenty
of water to grow well.
Pruning: suckers and shoots from the tree base should be removed regularly.
Altitude: from 0…1500 m; commercial plantations are normally below about 1000 m.
Pests: fruit flies (Oriental and Mediterranean), Guava flies (especially in Trinidad
and the West Indies), mealy bugs, thrips and scale insects can all cause major
damage. Root-knot nematodes can cause some damage and can be partially
controlled with heavy fertilisation, irrigation and spraying nutrients on the leaves.
Diseases: Wilt is a serious problem in some parts of India, Bacterial disease is the
major problem in the Caribbean. The alga Cephaleuros virescens causes fruit and
leaves to rot, especially in wet areas; controlled to some extent with fungicides.
YIELD
Mature, grafted or layered trees of local, unimproved varieties each produce about
400-800 fruits per year, weighing a total of 60…120 kg. 
 The same type of trees of improved types yield about 1000…2000 fruits per
hectare per year, weighing 150…300 kg. Seedling trees normally produce half or less
that of grafted or layered trees.
UTILISATION
€Guavas are mainly grown for local consumption. The seed is normally removed
from the fruit for making jam, jelly, paste, preserves, juice and nectar. In the
West Indies and elsewhere guava cheese is made by evaporating the fruit pulp
with sugar.
€Commercially, guavas are used mainly for making jellies. The fruit, juice and
nectar are canned.
€The leaves are sometimes used in traditional medicine to treat diarrhoea; also for
dyeing material and for tanning.
LIMITATIONS
€Very few, though under certain circumstances, usually in tropical conditions, the
growth of guava trees may become so uncontrolled that they become a weed, in
Fiji for example.
€Guava trees are sensitive to low temperatures and frost.
€Propagation by seed gives unpredictable, varied trees with low production.
Vegetative propagation on the other hand requires specialist knowledge of
grafting or budding.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK259
Mango
Mangifera indica
Arbre de Mango, Manguier (French); Manga (Spanish); Manga {fruit}, Mangueira
{tree} (Portuguese); Am, Amra (Hindi); Am (Pashtu & Dari/Persian)
Mangoes are the most popular fruit in many hot countries such as India, where they
have been grown for at least 4000 years. They are a commonly used feature in the
Hindu religion.
 The tree is a large, evergreen perennial, 10…30 m tall, which can live for more
than 100 years. It has a long tap root which can penetrate down six metres, and a
dense surface mass of feeding roots. 
 Both vegetative and reproductive (flowering) growth happens in burstsŽ or
flushesŽ, one part of the tree may be producing young flush growth (green, red,
yellow or purple leaves) while the rest of the tree is mature (dark green leaves).
 Mangoes are members of the cashew family Anacardiaceae. The so-called 
Wild Mango (Oba or Dika) Irvingia gabonensis is unrelated botanically, despite its
yellow, edible fruit which somewhat resembles mango. The oil-rich seed is used in
the treatment of obesity and as a soup thickener, called Ogbono (Agbono) in
Nigeria.
 The trees normally flower in January…March in the Northern hemisphere and in
June-August in the Southern Hemisphere. Each inflorescence may have up to 6000
flowers, mainly male, some hermaphrodite. The latter are insect pollinated but only
about 0.1% set fruit. Some varieties are polyembryonic ie each seed produces, in
addition to the sexual seedling, one to five nucellar seedlings which are genetically
identical to the parent plant. Monoembryonic varieties produce only one embryo per
seed, which, because it has arisen from a sexual process, will not grow true to typeŽ
(ie it will not exactly resemble either parent). With these varieties therefore
uniformity can only be achieved by vegetative propagation.
 The fruit is produced 2…5 months after fertilisation. The trees are often biennial
bearing (they only produce a good crop every other year, sometimes only every 3…4
years, or they may fruit only once a year instead of the normal twice a year, or on
only a part of the tree at a time.
 Mangoes are grown in most tropical countries, particularly in Asia, as well as in
Florida, Queensland, Egypt and Natal. There are many thousands of named varieties
available, though some are very specific to local conditions, and types are often
chosen more for their colour and flavour than their yield. The production of hybrids
is difficult but possible.
PLANTING
Propagation: can be by seed, transplanted after 4…12 months but this normally
produces poor quality fruit, so the best methods are vegetative, either grafting,
in arching (approach grafting) or shield budding. More efficient methods such as
veneer grafting and chip budding are also used in commercial plantations.



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260TONY WINCH
Germination: seed remains viable for only about 4 weeks after removal from the
ripe fruit, but ideally the seed is sown soon after removal. For this reason, mangoes
were not widely and rapidly spread around the world. The husk should be removed
to reveal any weevil larvae.
Soil: optimum pH is 5.5…7.5 (classified as tolerantŽ to soil acidity), but not adapted
to a much wider range. Should be deep and free-draining, and not too fertile because
in very fertile soil they tend to grow very large but with few fruits. Fertiliser is
beneficial for the first 3…4 years, and Nitrogen can be applied when the trees are
bearing a heavy crop, to encourage a good subsequent crop.
Spacing: 6…12 m apart. Large planting holes should be dug, incorporating plenty of
organic manure and/or compost.
Intercropping: very common, especially under young trees, with legumes,
vegetables, pineapples and other annual crops.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: the first mango fruit appears after 4…5 years in grafted or budded
trees, and in 7…8 years when grown from seed. Fruit matures 2…4 months after
flower fertilisation.
Temperature: optimum is about 24…27°C. Sensitive to frost.
Rainfall: 500…2500 mm per year. A marked period of dry weather is needed for
pollination and fruiting, so mangoes are generally not well suited to the humid
tropics, though recently some varieties have been developed for these conditions.
Altitude: 0…1300 m in the tropics, though some varieties can grow at 1800 m.
Best conditions are normally below 600 m.
Pests: not normally a big problem; the Mango Weevil (Sternocochetus mangiferae)
is the worst; larvae enter the fruit, leaving no mark on the skin, and attack the seed;
young fruit falls off and older fruit rots. The Mango Hopper (Jassid), various fruit
flies, thrips, scale insects, mites and mealy bugs also live on mangoes. Fruit flies are
most easily controlled by destroying fallen fruit.
Diseases: also not normally a big problem; Anthracnose can cause significant
damage, causing discoloured fruit, leaf spot, blossom blight and fruit rot. Partial
control with copper fungicides, but hard to control. Powdery Mildew (Oidium
mangiferae) can also infect flowers and young fruit, and can be controlled with
fungicides. Both diseases spread fastest in warm, wet weather.
YIELD
Ten year old mango trees can produce 400…600 fruits in their onŽ year, increasing
until about their 20th year, when they can produce around 2000 fruits, and declining
after they are about 40 years old. 
 Many varieties produce fruit erratically, one good year often followed by 2…3
poor years.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK261
UTILISATION
€Ripe fruit„eaten raw and also to produce juice, squash, jams, jellies and
preserves. They can also be canned. Mangoes are a good source of Vitamin A,
though the amount depends on the variety and the colour of fruit„apricot
coloured fruit has the highest level. The fruit also provides useful amounts of
Vitamins C (37 mg/100 g) and D, as well as about 14% total sugars, mainly in
the form of sucrose.
€Unripe fruit„rich in starch, used in pickles and chutneys. Also sliced, dried
and seasoned with turmeric to produce amchur.
€Seeds„can be ground into flour and used as human food during famine„70%
carbohydrate, 10% fat and 6% protein.
€Leaves„if little or nothing else is available the leaves can be fed to cattle,
though they may die if given this diet for too long.
€Timber„for making boats and dugouts, and also in the construction of
buildings.
LIMITATIONS
€Mango trees may only produce a good crop of fruit only every two, three or four
years;
€The trees are also susceptible to insect damage, and they are sensitive to frost;
€Minimum period of four years from planting to first harvest„even longer for
trees grown from seed, and the fruit is difficult to transport without loss of
quality.
Papaya (Pawpaw)
Carica papaya
Papaw. Papaye (French); Mamão{fruit and plant}, Mamoeiro, Papaeira, Pinoguaçu
{plant} (Portuguese); Papaya (Amharic, Ethiopia)
Papaya originated in tropical America, probably around present day Mexico and
Costa Rica, and is now widely grown throughout the tropics and subtropics, and to
some extent in warm temperate regions. The trees are mainly grown on a very small
scale, in back yards and so on, but in places such as Australia, South Africa, Mexico,
Brazil, Indonesia and Hawaii they are grown on a field scale. The annual production
worldwide is estimated to be about 2 million MT.
 Papaya is a member of the Caricaceae family and should not be confused with
the other Pawpaw or Papaw, Asimina triloba, the Custard Apple, a member of the
Annonaceae family, which produces small, fleshy 8…18 cm long fruit that looks
rather like stubby bananas.
 The Mountain Papaya (C. pubescens syn. C. candamarcensis) is a native of the
Andes and is cultivated at high altitudes in the tropics. The small fruits are cooked
before eating and can be made into jam.



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262TONY WINCH
 Papayas are short-lived perennials; they usually live for only 5 or 6 years, and no
more than 25. The trees grow rapidly, to a height of about 2…12 m; the wood is light
and soft. The roots are also soft and easily damaged.
 There are two types of papaya tree: dioecious, the most common type, with male
and female reproductive organs (flowers) in separate flowers on separate plants, or
monoecious, less common, with male and female flowers separate but on the same
plant. Male plants can be recognised as soon as they flower because the flowers are
borne on long stalks. If a dioecious variety is grown, some male trees should be
grown near the females (about 1 male per 15…20 females) to ensure that pollination
occurs.
Papaya fruit is a good source of Vitamin A and also contains about 60 mg/100 g
Vitamin C. Total sugars are about 9%, equal parts of glucose, fructose and sucrose.
The fruit is also the source of papain, a proteolytic enzyme extracted from the latex
of the unripe young fruit, which is mainly produced in East Africa and Sri Lanka„
see UtilisationŽ and YieldŽ below.
PLANTING
Propagation: normally by seed, either in nurseries or directly into the field. Farmers
can use their own seed, selected from the best trees.
Germination: takes 2…3 weeks. Air-dried seed remains viable for 2…3 years.
Soil: papaya plants will not tolerate waterlogging, though the soil should always be
moist. Ideal soils are well drained, sandy and fertile with pH 6…6.5 (classified as
having intermediate toleranceŽ to soil acidity). 
Roots are soft and easily damaged, so weeding around the trees should be shallow
and careful.
Seed rate: 14,000…15,000 seedlings per hectare, with about 5…7 seedlings per hole
(see next).
Spacing: 2.1…2.7 metre square grid. 5…7 seedlings or seeds are planted per station
and grown until the sex of the plant becomes apparent, in about six months. The best
female plant is left, and also one male plant per 25…100 female plants.
Depth: 1 cm.
Rotation: when a papaya crop is finished, normally after 2…5 years, an unrelated
crop should then be grown to minimise the build-up of nematodes and/or root rots.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: first fruit in 9…14 months, then can live for up to 25 years, though
commercially they are normally only grown for 3…5 years. Papain is normally
extracted for only 2 or 3 years.
Temperature: the plant is killed by frost, and low temperatures lead to tasteless
fruit.
Rainfall: the soil should be constantly moist, so irrigation is often necessary during
dry spells. Poor drainage tends to lead to root rots.
Altitude: below 1500 m is best, though they can grow at over 2000 m. Papain is
produced at lower altitudes, normally below 900 m for commercial tapping; latex
flow decreases with altitude.
Pests: rarely a problem. Birds sometimes damage fruit. Mites can cause some
damage.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK263
Diseases: one of the main reasons for the short life of papaya trees: Mosaic virus is
the most serious; leaves turn yellow and distorted, plants become distorted and die.
Spread by aphids, which also spread other papaya diseases. Pythium rots are worse
in wet or waterlogged soil. Anthracnose„ the ripe fruit develops spots. Also:
mildew, foot rot, damping off and leaf spots.
YIELD
Fruit: 10…15 MT/ha per year is possible with careful farming. Maximum is about 
35 MT/ha per year, with each tree producing 30…150 fruits per year. Some fruits
weigh up to 10kg or more.
Papain: 45…170 kg/ha per year„50% in the first year, 30% in the second and 20%
in the third. Trees are then either replanted or grown only for the fruit. The average
yield in Tanzania is 45…55 kg/ha per year.
UTILISATION
€Fresh fruit„produced throughout the year, eaten when ripe and also used to
make soft drinks, jam, ice-cream flavouring and crystallised fruit. They can be
canned in syrup.
€Papain„a protein digesting enzyme which is extracted from the dried latex
taken by tapping young, unripe fruit. Papain greatly resembles the animal
protein pepsin in its digestive action. It is used as a meat tenderiser, in
manufacturing chewing-gum and cosmetics, as a drug for digestive disorders
and for detecting intestinal cancer, in the hide tanning industry, for degumming
natural silk, for clearing beer and to make wool resistant to shrinking. That 
is all.
€Unripe fruit„can be cooked as a substitute for marrow and for apple sauce.
€Young leaves„can be eaten as a spinach, and used to tenderise meat „ the
young fruit can also be used for this purpose.
€Flowers„occasionally eaten, as in Java.
€Seed„used in some countries as a vermicide (worm killing substance), counter-
irritant and abortifacient.
€Pectin„extracted from the by-products of canning, it is used in making jams
and jellies.
LIMITATIONS
€Papaya fruit is thin-skinned, easily bruised and so does not travel well.
€The plant is killed by frost.
€The plant is also susceptible to attack from nematodes, virus and other diseases.
€The shallow root system is easily damaged by cultivation and weeding activities,
and means that trees are easily blown down by wind.
€Monoecious varieties bear fruit on only about half of the trees planted, and most
of the male trees should be removed and replaced with female trees.



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264TONY WINCH
Watermelon
Citrullus lanatus (Syn. Citrullus vulgaris, Colocynthis citrullus)
Melon deau, Pasteque (French); Sandia (Spanish); Melancia (Portuguese);
Wassermelone (German); Cocomero (Italian); Kalitangi (Umbundu, Angola);
Tarbooj (Hindi); Hindwana (Pashtu); Tarbooz (Dari/Persian); Habhab (Ethiopia)
Watermelons can provide a valuable alternative to drinking water in desert areas and
in other situations where water is in short supply. The edible portion, which
constitutes about 60% of the whole fruit, contains about 94% water and very little
protein or fat. They do however provide about 7% total sugars, some Vitamin A and
about 5…8 mg/100 g Vitamin C, but are generally more useful as a cash crop than as
a source of nutrition.
 They originated in the sandy, dry areas of the Kalahari in Africa and are now
grown on every continent except Antarctica, normally for local consumption. They
are one of the most ancient cultivated crops; Egyptian art shows them being grown
more than 4000 years ago.
 There is great variation within the species, from small, hard, bitter and inedible
fruits to the well known large, juicy, sweet fruits. A large number of named
varieties, including hybrids (some of which are seedless), are available, with
improved disease resistance and tough rinds for long distance transport.
 The plant is an annual, a member of the Cucurbitaceae (gourd) family, with
trailing stems up to 5 m long. The plants are both self-pollinated and cross-
pollinated, mainly by honey bees. They are monoecious„the male and female
flowers are on the same plant, but they are separate. Seedless fruit production is
discussed on page 243.
 Watermelons are related to the Chinese Watermelon or Wax Gourd, Benincasa
hispida, which produce fruits shaped like melon or cucumber up to 40 cm long.
 Farmers and other growers can save their own seed, selected from the most well
adapted plants and fruits. The seed should remain viable for two years if kept dry
and cool. To collect seed, the fruits should be left to mature on the plant, then left
about two weeks after harvesting before removing the seeds. These should then be
washed in clean water and dried in the sun.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed, normally planted in situ into their final station. If
transplanted, great care is needed to avoid disturbing the rootball. Hand pollination
assists fruit setting.
Soil: watermelons prefer fertile sandy loam, near neutral pH (classified as tolerantŽ
to soil acidity) but will also grow in a wide range of well-drained soils. Sandy
riverbanks are ideal.
Fertilisers: in common with the other Cucurbits, watermelons benefit from manure
and compost. Inorganic fertiliser, particularly those that are high in Phosphorus, are
also often applied. Nitrogen top dressings should be applied when the plants start
making runners and/or when they start flowering or after fruit-set.



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Seed rate: 1…3 kg/ha depending on variety and planting distances. 6…8 seeds often
planted together on a mound, then thinned to the best 1 or 2 plants. Epigeal
germination.
Seed size: very variable, eg Sugar Baby averages 41g per 1000 seeds, Blackstone
averages 125 g. Seed dressing such as Captan or Thiram is often used to combat
mildews.
Spacing: the mounds are about 2…3.5 m apart. Sometimes planted in rows, thinned
to 1…1.5 m between plants. 
Depth: 2…5 cm.
Rotation: should not be grown on the same land more often than every 4…5 years,
nor after another Cucurbit crop, to avoid buildup of soil-borne insects(and fungal
diseases to some extent).
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: watermelon plants are day-neutral.
Growth period: 80…150 days. The fruit is ripe when it gives a dull thud when
tapped with the hand and when the tendrils have withered.
Temperature: killed by even a light frost. For good fruit development watermelons
need a long hot sunny period with a mean temperature of more than 20°C. For
proper seed germination the soil temperature should be more than 20°C, and
germination will not happen below about 16°C.
Rainfall: fairly drought resistant. If irrigated, this can be done infrequently as the
deep, extensive root system ensures growth during long dry periods. The plants
tolerate fairly humid conditions, though the fruit quality can suffer and diseases may
also develop faster.
Pests: Cutworms and other soil inhabiting insects can be controlled with poisoned
baits, such as Furadan. Fruit flies can be controlled with insecticide. Other pests
include root-knot nematodes, Cucumber Beetle and aphids, controlled with a
combination of rotation with insecticides.
Diseases: Mildews, both Downy and Powdery, may become serious. Also
Anthracnose, Fusarium Wilt & Watermelon Mosaic Virus, all controlled with a
combination of resistant varieties and sensible crop rotations. Genetic engineering in
the USA has produced some virus resistance.
YIELD
A good crop of watermelons can produce about 1200 fruits/ha, each fruit on average
weighing about 7…8 kg, varying from 1…2 kg to more than 20 kg. Each vine
produces 1…15 fruits. 75 MT/ha is possible under ideal growing conditions.
 The global average yield is about 15 MT/ha. Plant breeders aim to produce
varieties with a larger number of smaller fruits, with tough skins, mainly to facilitate
transport.
 The yield of seed is about 200…250 kg/ha.



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266TONY WINCH
UTILISATION
€Watermelons are normally grown for the refreshing ripe fruit, eaten fresh.
About 94% is water, but each 100 g contains Vitamin C (8 mg), Vitamin A
(570IU), Vitamin B6 (0.045 mg) and some thiamin and riboflavin.
€The seeds are much more nutritious, containing 20…45% of an edible semi-
drying oil and 30…40% protein; they are also rich in the enzyme urease. They
can be dried and then chewed, as in southern China, or ground up and baked
into bread, or roasted. The oil extracted from the seed is used in cooking and for
lighting„  the seed cake (Ž presscake ) which remains is used for animal food.
€The rind (skin) is sometimes preserved as a pickle.
LIMITATIONS
€Low nutritional value of the fruit, mainly useful as a source of clean water and/or
cash.
€The fruit is easily damaged & does not travel well, though some does enter
international trade.
€The fruit has relatively short storage time (shelf lifeŽ).
€The plant is killed by frost and needs high temperature for germination and
growth.
€The plant is also susceptible to Fusarium Wilt and Anthracnose, though there are
many varieties available with good resistance to these, and other, diseases.
2G. UNDER EXPLOITED FOOD CROPS
At some time or another mankind has used at least 3000 plant species for food, of
which only about 150 have been cultivated commercially. About 60 of these 150
species are described in detail in this document, in Section 2A…2G, pages 107…287. 
  However, these days only about 20 plant species feed most of the people in the
world, and it may be very risky to depend on such a small number of crops.
Monocultures can be vulnerable to catastrophic failures arising from changes in
climate or the uncontrolled development of pests or diseases.
 One of the reasons that these days we are only cultivating a small proportion of
edible crops may well be because these crops have been studied more intensively by
plant breeders, agronomists and research workers than other localŽ or traditionalŽ
crops.
 In colonial times, these workers were often trained and financed by European
governments; market demands by European consumers dictated which crops were
imported, and so which crops were encouraged in the colonies„examples include
pineapple, banana, rubber and oil palm. In this way many traditionally grown crops,
adapted over many generations by local farmers to the particular growing conditions
of their area, were neglected or even deliberately suppressed. 



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK267
 This pattern has tended to continue even after independence, and mankind is
only recently discovering the enormous possibilities of manipulating the ability of
plants to adapt and succeed in different environments.
 The ability of these under exploited crops to help to feed people in many of the
marginal parts of the world deserves wider recognition from people involved in food
production for survival. The current deficit in food, particularly protein, which exists
in many of the poorer countries of the world will inevitably continue. One of the
positive ways to assist farmers to produce more food is to introduce, test and then
distribute the successful (if any) varieties of adapted crops of some of these less
well-known species. 
 The best plant introductions are those that have at least one attribute, such as
high protein or calorific content, which is in short supply in that area. Naturally
these newŽ plants also have to be acceptable to, and grown by, a proportion of
leader farmersŽ in the area before they become adopted to any significant extent.
Many farmers are reluctant to experiment with new crops, or techniques; one way to
help break down this reluctance is to arrange for demonstration areas to be planted
in the areas involved. If a picture is worth a thousand words, then a demonstration
area should be worth a million.
 One problem, often the most serious one, concerns the preparation and cooking
of any new and strange, or forgotten, crop. Very often the older women in the
community will remember how to cook these almost forgotten food crops and they
may be able to provide advice or give in the homeŽ demonstrations on the
preparation and cooking of the newŽ food.
 Seven of these under exploited crops are described in the following section:
Amaranth, Bambara Groundnut, Buffalo Gourd, Leucaena, Lupin, Tepary
Bean and Winged Bean (Four-angled Bean).
There are dozens of other plant species, many adapted to specific and often hostile
growing conditions such as drought or high temperatures, including:
Adzuki Bean Phaseolus angularis
African Yam Bean Sphenostylis stenocarpa
(American) Wild Rice Zizania aquatica
Australian (Moreton Bay) Chestnut Castanospermum australe
Chinese Water Chestnut (Matai) Eleocharis dulcis
Kerstings (Hausa) Groundnut Kerstingiella geocarpa
Lotus Nelumbo nucifera
Mat (Moth) Bean Phaseolus aconitifolius
Pillepesara Phaseolustrilobus
Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa
Rice Bean Vigna umbellata
Water Chestnut Trapa spp.



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268TONY WINCH
Amaranth
Amaranthus spp.
Amaranthus Spinach, Chinese Spinach, Josephs Coat, Inca Wheat, Love-lies-
bleeding, Princes Feather, Pigweed, Tassel Flower, Tumbleweed
Amarante {à Queue de Renard} (French); Amarant, Gartenfuchsschwanz (German); 
Trigo del Inca (Spanish); Amaranto (Portuguese); 
Jimboa, Otchimboa, Ofumboa (Angola).
Plants of the Amaranthaceae family are fast growing annuals that produce either
high protein grain in large seed heads, and/or large protein-rich leaves which are
eaten like a spinach. Grain Amaranths have been grown for thousands of years in
South America, where the grain is still eaten, while the vegetable (leaf) Amaranths
are of Asiatic or Indian origin.
 The word amaranthus has its roots in Greek, meaning unwitheringŽ„the plant
was regarded as a symbol of immortality. Ancient Greeks also considered Love-lies-
bleeding (A. hypochondriacus) to be sacred due to its healing properties and used the
plants to decorate tombs and sacred images.
 Before the Spanish Conquest grain Amaranths were widely grown in the
highlands of tropical and subtropical America; in fact they were the major grain crop
in many parts of the Andes. The Spanish church suppressed the cultivation of
Amaranths in an effort to eradicate them, partly because they were used in pagan
Aztec religious ceremonies, and also to encourage the cultivation of maize. 
 These days the various species of the Amaranthaceae family are more commonly
cultivated for their leaves by Asian hill tribes, and to some extent in the plains of
India, the Caribbean and parts of Africa such as Angola and Zambia.
 There are more than 800 species of Amaranthus, although their classification
varies according to the source„Latin names do not always correspond to the
commonly used name in English, which also vary according to country.
 At least three species are grown for their grain and have good potential as
sources of protein:
Amaranthus caudatus„(A. edulis, with club-shaped inflorescence branches, is one
race of this species)„grown in the Andean regions of Argentina, Peru and Bolivia;
known as Kiwicha. One form of this species A. hypochondriacus has red flower
spikes, grown as a garden ornamental known as Love-lies-bleedingŽ. Very high
lysine content of 6.2%, similar to soybean meal.
Amaranthus cruentus„ occasionally grown in Guatemala and other Central
American countries.
Amaranthus leucocarpus (Syn. A. hypochondriacus or A. frumentaceus)„the most
widespread and important species. Grown mainly in Mexico and Guatemala. The
grain contains 15% protein and 63% starch.
The smooth pigweed Amaranthus hybridus has leaves that are used as a vegetable
similar to spinach„see penultimate paragraph UtilisationŽ for details.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK269
 They are found all over the world, and many of the various species of
Amaranths, including some wild species, are mainly regarded as weeds„hence the
PigweedsŽ„Prostrate Pigweed (Mat Amaranth), Spiny Amaranth and Rough
Pigweed or Redroot, and the well known spaghetti western weed Tumbleweed
(A.albus).   Other species are grown as ornamentals, some of which are perennials.
Some of the many other so-called PigweedsŽ, such as Lambs Quarters, are members
of the Chenopodiaceae family.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed. Dark seeds are sometimes removed before planting as these
tend to produce very big, weedy plants. The seed is very small and is normally sown
direct, by broadcasting, or sometimes in nurseries for transplanting. About 2 kg/ha
of seed is required. Germination is affected by light and with some species only
takes place in the dark.
Pollination: mainly by wind. Both self and cross-pollination occurs„a number of
hybrids are found, formed naturally by cross-pollination between species.
Soil: similar requirements to maize ie best on fertile soils that have adequate P & N.
Spacing: similar to maize; wider spacing for the larger varieties.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
In general, Amaranths grow in similar conditions to maize, though there are species
and varieties that can often be grown at higher altitudes and in colder areas.
Propagation: by seed, normally planted directly into the field (though they can be
transplanted without any problem).
Day length: sensitive to photoperiod in that the timing of flowering depends on the
day length. Most are short day plants, so they tend to bolt early if planted when the
days are shortening. Different varieties have different responses, which can be a
problem if they are introduced to one country or latitude from another.
Growth period: for leaf varieties, several cuttings of leaves can be taken before the
plants set seed. Modern varieties mature quickly, in about 10…12 weeks. 
Temperature: Amaranths are mainly a warm season crop.
Rainfall: soil must be moist for sowing; often irrigated in dry spells.
Pests: leaf eating caterpillars and beetles may become a problem, which can be
picked off or controlled with Malathion or Sevin (carbaryl).
Diseases: not normally a problem, though Cercospora leaf spot and White rust may
occur.
YIELD
Leaves can be continuously harvested for several months, yielding about 10 MT/ha.
Seed yields of over 1 MT/ha have been reported in ideal conditions, though normal
yields are only about 200…250 kg/ha, in theory, as they are rarely monocropped.



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270TONY WINCH
UTILISATION
€Grain…can be considered as a pseudo-cereal. The pale coloured grain is the best
in appearance, flavour and its ability to popŽ. It is usually parched and milled,
and the dough made into pancakes. It can also be cooked for gruel, or popped
and made into confections, or powdered and made into a drink. It contains about
14…18% protein and also high levels of the essential amino-acids lysine and
methionine that are usually deficient in plant protein. The seed also contains
tocotrienols, a form of Vitamin E which are believed to lower cholesterol levels
in humans. It is also highly digestible, and therefore appropriate for people
recovering from illness or famine. In Mexico it is popped and mixed with a
sugar solution called alegria (happiness) and is also used to make a traditional
Mexican drink atole.  
€Leaves and plant thinnings are made into spinach type vegetable dishes,
providing about 5% protein, especially from the Smooth Pigweed Amaranthus
hybridus. Tea can also be made with the leaves, which is said to have astringent
properties and to cure dysentery, diarrhoea and ulcers.
€Other Amaranth species„several are grown to be used as ornamentals,
especially in the tropics, such as the Globe Amaranth Gomphrena globosa and
Amaranthus paniculatus.
LIMITATIONS
€Amaranth plants can grow too vigorously and become a weed; in a survey of 15
States in North America, Pigweeds were reported to be one of the five weeds
that caused the greatest yield loss in maize fields. The Alligator Weed
(Alternanthera philoxeroides) is another example of an Amaranth that can
become a serious nuisance.
€The seedhead shatters readily, which not only wastes food but also can create
weed problems for the following crop.
€Little agronomic data is available„ for example the response to day length of
the different varieties is not well understood. India is one of the countries most
involved with research. Some research is also conducted in the USA, China,
Mexico and Nepal.
€Shortage of good quality seed, especially of named, improved varieties with
well described characteristics.
€The pollen of the Noxious Pigweed Amaranthus retroflexus can cause an
allergic reaction.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK271
Bambara Groundnut
Voandzeia subterranea (Syn. Vigna subterranea)
Baffin Pea, Bambara Bean, Congo Goober, Earth Pea, Earth Nut, Ground Bean,
Jugo or Juga Bean, Kaffir Pea, Madagascar Groundnut, Njugo Bean, Stone
Groundnut, Underground nut, Aboboi, Akyii, Djokomaie, Epi roro, Gertere, Gobbo
Voandzou, Haricot Pistache, Haricot de behanzin, Pois Arachide, Pois Bambara,
Pois de Terre (French); Erderbse (German); Guisante de Tierra, Maní de Bambara,
Maní de Africano (Spanish); Feijão Jugo (Portuguese); Oviélon (Angola); Ful
Abungawi (Sudan), Guerte (Arabic); Njama (Malawi); Nela-kadalai (Malaysia);
Kachang Bogor (India); Njugo Bean (South Africa)
Bambara Groundnuts originated in West Africa and have been grown in tropical
Africa for many centuries. Today they are mainly grown in areas of tropical Africa
with low rainfall and poor soils. They are also grown in central and South America,
India, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and northern Australia. Zambia is the
biggest producer. They are mainly grown on a small scale for local production and
do not enter into world trade. They are occasionally found growing wild in West
Africa.
 There are many types of this annual legume: open (spreading), compact
(bunched) and intermediate (semi-bunch). They have trailing stems 10…15 cm long,
almost submerged. After the pale yellow or pink flowers have been fertilised (most
varieties are self-pollinated, though cross-pollinated types also exist), the ovary
grows down into the soil, like groundnuts. One or two centimetres below the soil
surface pods develop, which are hard and wrinkled, 1…3 cm long, either round or
oval. The pods contain one or sometimes two hard round seeds 7…15 mm in diameter
of various colours (white, black, red and also often speckled or patterned), usually
with a white hilum that may be edged by a black or brown eye.
 The mature seed formed in these subterranean pods contains a nicely balanced
composition of 14…24% protein, 4.5…6.5% fat and 50…60% carbohydrate (mainly
starch). The calorific content is quoted as being between 367 and 412 per 100 mg
edible portion. This well-balanced food is also quite easy to prepare and tastes good,
though prolonged boiling is required. 
 The plant grows in hot, arid regions on poor soils where other legumes or high
protein sources such as groundnuts do not grow well. This species has been
neglected as a crop until recently when their potential as a source of protein in
marginal areas is starting to be exploited.
 The plant looks very similar to the Groundbean or Kerstings Groundnut
(Kerstingiella geocarpa), which has grains which are usually white, brown, black or
speckled and which look very similar to the seed of the Haricot or Common/Field
Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The Groundbean (K. geocarpa) has broader leaves than
the Bambara Groundnut, and the plant is less robust, though it can grow in even
more arid areas than the Bambara Groundnut.
Online information on the Bambara Groundnut is available from the BAMNET
website, and elsewhere.



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272TONY WINCH
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed; normally sown direct ie not transplanted. 
Soil: Bambara groundnuts tolerate very poor and sandy soils that are unsuitable for
groundnuts. The optimum pH is 5…6.5. Ideally the seed is inoculated if it is planted
for the first time into a particular area, unless it is known that Cowpea rhizobia are
present„inoculation of seed is discussed in 1Fe, page 54. The flower stalks cannot
penetrate a hard soil crust. The plant cannot tolerate waterlogging.
Seed rate: the average is 30…60 kg/ha, depending on seed size, to produce about
150,000 plants per hectare. The maximum is about 190 kg/ha, for closely spaced
plants grown in a pure stand. There are about 1300…2000 seeds per kg.
Spacing: either in single rows about 45 cm apart with 5…15 cm between plants, or in
double rows 8 cm apart on flat ridges about 90 cm apart. 
Depth: 5…7.5 cm
Intercropping: sometimes with pearl millet, root crops or other legumes.
Seed treatment: Thiram or an equivalent is recommended for shelled seed.
Sometimes the whole pod is planted.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: 90…120 days for bunch types, 120…150 days for spreading types.
The entire plant is pulled up and dried in the sun and wind, the pods being attached
with tough, wiry stalks.
Temperature: the optimum is 20…28°C. Bambara Groundnuts prefer hot sunny
climates and need a frost-free period of 100…120 days.
Rainfall: Bambara Groundnuts are one of the most drought resistant of the legumes.
The optimum rainfall is about 900…1200 mm/a., though they can grow with 600…750
mm/a. They also tolerate heavy rainfall unless this occurs when the plants are
mature.
Altitude: 0…1600 m
Rotation: often planted as the first crop in a rotation, followed by cassava, or after
groundnuts or other legumes when their yields become very low.
Pests: very few, though root-knot nematodes, leaf-hoppers, crickets and rodents can
sometimes cause some damage.
Diseases: also very few, though wilt, leaf spot and leaf virus can sometimes reduce
yields, especially in humid conditions.
YIELD
Normal yields of Bambara Groundnuts are about 550…850 kg/ha, but in ideal
conditions 3…4 MT/ha are possible. 
 The FAO estimate for the average global yield in 2004 was 779 kg/ha, the
highest national average being recorded in Burkina Faso (1 MT/ha) and the lowest
average in Mali (400 kg/ha).



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK273
UTILISATION
€Grain„eaten in various ways, either ripe (mature), pounded into flour and
mixed with oil or butter to make a kind of porridge, or roasted in oil; or green
(immature), eaten fresh or boiled or grilled. In Zimbabwe and Ghana the grain
is canned on a commercial scale. The mature grain can be fed to animals after it
has been soaked in water.
€Whole green pods„can be washed and boiled, and eaten either as a vegetable
or used in soups. Easier and quicker to prepare than the mature grain.
€Roasted, ground meal„can be used as a coffee substitute.
€Haulm„a good animal food, containing about 16% protein.
LIMITATIONS
€Limited availability of tested, improved varieties of Bambara Groundnuts, and
indeed of any seed at all.
€Many of the available varieties are only adapted to a small geographical area, so
new varieties introduced to an area should be thoroughly tested first.
€During storage the grain is susceptible to both insect and fungal attack.
€The oil content is low, about 6% (4.5…6.5%).
€The mature dry grain is indigestible and hard and must be boiled for a long time
or ground into a powder before it is edible.
Buffalo Gourd
Cucurbita foetidissima
Coyote Gourd, Fetid Gourd, Missouri Gourd, Prairie Gourd, Stinking Gourd, Wild 
Gourd, Wild Pumpkin, Mock Orange. Calabazilla (Amarga), Chilicote (Spanish)
North American Indians living in hot dry regions have used the Buffalo Gourd for
thousands of years, as a food source, for washing clothes, cleaning animal skins, as
ritualistic rattles and others (see UtilisationŽ).
 The potential of this plant to produce oil and protein in very marginal areas has
been recognised in recent years. Buffalo Gourds can produce similar yields to
soybeans or groundnuts, but they do so in extremely hot and arid regions where
conventional crops would die. The plants can survive with virtually no cultivation or
effort by man.
 The flowers are bright yellow, up to about 10 cm wide, pollinated by insects.
Each plant produces about 50 hard-shelled, spherical fruits, either mainly yellow or
mainly green with yellow stripes or markings, which are inedible but contain pulp
and white, flat seeds.  The seeds are about 12 mm long and 7 mm wide and contain
30…35% protein and up to 34% oil; seed yields of 2500 kg/ha are easily obtained.
 Buffalo Gourds are also a form of root crop; the tubers can grow to an enormous
size, up to 150 kg, which may reach down 5 m or more in search of water. The roots
contain about 56% starch. The plant can therefore be viewed as a dual-purpose crop,
being both a root crop and an oilseed crop.



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274TONY WINCH
 The Buffalo Gourd is a member of the Cucurbitaceae family (the gourds,
squashes and melons), and is a vigorous perennial that can survive for 40 years or
more. It grows wild in Mexico and in the southwest of North America.
 The plant can produce either very high or very low yields, without apparent
reason„very little research work has so far been done on this potentially useful food
crop. Further details online at: http://medplant.nmsu.edu
PLANTING
Propagation: in three ways: sexually, by seed; vegetatively from nodal roots, or
vegetatively by fixing the long stems (vines) to the soil and watering them, rapidly
forming new roots and plants. Seed takes about 2 weeks to germinate.
Soil: should be dry and well drained. Buffalo Gourds grow well in sandy and
infertile soils, and can be useful as a soil binder to reduce erosion by wind and
water.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: seed can be harvested annually for up to 40 years.
Temperature: frost sensitive. The plants need long periods of hot, dry weather.
Rainfall: extremely drought resistant; once the plants are established they can
survive with virtually no rain.
Pests: resistant to most pests, including cucumber beetles and squash bugs.
YIELD
Each fruit contains about 12 g of seed; on the basis of 60 fruits per plant, one hectare
of plants can produce 2.5 tons of seed, containing 30…35% protein and up to 34%
oil.
 The root is enormous and can weigh up to 30 kg after just two growing seasons.
Older plants can produce roots weighing up to 150 kg, of which about 70% is water.
UTILISATION
Buffalo Gourd is a dual-purpose crop, being both a root crop and an oilseed crop,
but  it also has many other uses:
€The seed can be crushed to obtain the edible polyunsaturated oil, used both as
food and in industry and cosmetics. Seeds are also effective as a vermifuge
(agent that causes the evacuation of intestinal worms).
€The pulp from undried fruit is used as cattle food.
€Traditionally, North American Indians used the seeds for food and soapy extracts
of the fruit pulp and vine for washing clothes and cleaning animal hides.
€The Navajo used the dried gourds as ritualistic rattles.
€The roots can be used as laundry soap and shampoo. The roots can also be dried
and used as firewood, in Afghanistan for example.
€The crushed leaves are used as an insecticide.
€The plant is used as an ornamental for its colourful fruits.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK275
LIMITATIONS
€Buffalo Gourd plants require long periods of warm dry weather for optimum
growth.
€they are sensitive to frost and intolerant of wet, poorly drained soil.
€there is wide variation in yield between plants, often without apparent reason.
€in common with most other plant protein, the protein contained in Buffalo
Gourds is low in lysine and the sulphur containing amino-acids.
€the meal, or presscake, has a high phytic acid content and may also contain
excessive saponins or other toxic substances.
€the plant is rather unattractive and some leaves have a stale, nauseating smell
(hence foetidissimaŽ).
€there is a shortage of research material on the plant and its agricultural
requirements.
Leucaena
Leucaena leucocephala (formerly classified as L. glauca)
Horse Tamarind, Leadtree, White Popinac
Ipil-ipil, Lepile, Bayani (Philippines); Lamtoro (Indonesia); Guaje, Yaje, Vaxin
(Central and South America); Koa-haole (Hawaii); Hediondilla (Puerto Rico);
Tangatan (Guam)
The name leucaenaŽ may be pronounced as either loo-see-naŽ, loo-kee-naŽ, loo-
kay-naŽ or loo-kuy-naŽ. It is a productive, persistent and palatable leguminous tree
or bush which originated in Central America and is now grown in almost all of the
tropical and subtropical countries of the world. 
 It is not a human food crop, but is included in this handbook because of its
significant potential as a multi-purpose crop.
 Under optimum conditions Leucaena can grow incredibly fast, and for this
reason as well as its multiple uses it has been called the Miracle TreeŽ. However it
will only grow well in areas with appropriate soils, climate and altitude; the
appropriate type and variety is also needed. 
 There are three main types of Leucaena:
€ Hawaiian„1…5 m tall with very many branches. Starts to flowers at 4…6
months, then continues all year round. Very prolific (many seeds), and may
become an aggressive weed. Main uses: erosion control, firewood, charcoal,
shade crop and grazing (mainly cattle).
€Salvador„up to 20 m tall, with few branches on the lower part of the
trunk. Also called ArborealŽ or GuatemalaŽ type. Plant breeders have selected
many varieties of this type, known as Hawaiian GiantsŽ or by the letter K and a
number, eg K8, K72, K132, etc. Main uses: timber and wood products,
industrial fuel.



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276TONY WINCH
€Peru„up to 15 m tall, with many branches even low down on the trunk. A
quite recent discovery, so only relatively few improved varieties are available.
Mainly used for grazing.
PLANTING
Seed treatment: the seed has a covering (testa) which is hard, waxy and almost
impermeable to water, so to ensure good germination the seed should be treated first.
There are many methods; for small quantities the seed can be scarified by cutting a
small nickŽ in the side of the seed (not the base) with a knife or nail-clippers, or by
rubbing it with sandpaper. For larger quantities, either immerse seed in 80°C water
for 3 minutes or immerse the seed, in a mesh bag, in an equal volume of boiling
water. Remove heat at the same time as the seed is immersed, remove bag after 3
minutes. In both cases the seed should be rapidly cooled in cold running water, then
dried completely on a concrete or other hard floor, or in hessian bags.
Inoculation: a suitable strain of Rhizobia should be used if available. Also the seed
should be lime-pelleted if sown in soils below pH 5.5, or if sown in contact with
superphosphate.
Propagation: by seed, but Leucaena can also be propagated with cuttings or grafts.
The plants coppice readily, producing what are known as ratoonsŽ or pollardsŽ.
Soil: not well suited to acidic soils less than pH 5, nor poorly drained soils.
Leucaena needs calcium and grows well on deep, calcareous or clay soils. Very salt
tolerant, but sensitive to aluminium. Needs zinc, molybdenum and other nutrients
(see LimitationsŽ, below).
Seed rate: 0.5…5 kg/ha depending on type, row spacing, soil type, etc. 20…30,000
seeds per kg.
Spacing: the Salvador types are often grown very widely spaced to allow maximum
growth. 
For grazing, 1.5…5 m between rows, giving 75,000…100,000 plants/ha. 
For timber, about 2 m × 2 m, giving 2500 plants/ha.
Depth: 2.5…5 cm
Intercropping: for grazing, grasses are usually planted, such as green panic, setaria,
Rhodes grass or kikuyu grass. For soil enrichment, erosion control, etc. Leucaena
can be intercropped with almost any crop.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Growth period: a perennial. Seedlings grow slowly„less than 30 cm in the first six
weeks.
Rainfall: optimum is 600…1700 mm per year, but can sometimes survive with 250
mm per year.
Temperature: grows best in full sun in hot places. Loses leaves (it defoliatesŽ)
with even light frosts, but soon recovers.
Altitude: best below 500 m; Leucaena does grow at high altitudes, but with less
vigour. Latitude seems to make a difference to which altitudes are suitable.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK277
Pests: rarely a problem. Seed Weevils attack young pods and eat the developing
seed. Termites may attack young seedlings. Wild game, goats, rats, etc are also fond
of eating young seedlings, which may have to be fenced.
Diseases: seedlings sometimes die (damping offŽ), but diseases are rarely a
problem.
Toxicity: Leucaena contains a toxic amino-acid, mimosine; this is most
concentrated in young, growing plant tissue„shoot tips, for example, have 10%,
while very old leaves have 1%. This may be a problem for grazing animals if
Leucaena makes up more than about 30% of their diet for some weeks. 
Symptoms: loss of hair or wool, goitres, loss of appetite, weight loss, excessive
saliva, alopecia, growth retardation, cataracts and infertility in animals.
YIELD
Grazing: 2…20 MT/ha dry matter, equivalent to 430…4300 kg/ha of protein.
Timber: Salvador types can grow 4 m tall in six months, 9 m in two years and 
17 m (25…35 cm diameter) in six years.
UTILISATION
€Animal forage.
€Wood„for construction, pulp and paper.
€Fuel„good firewood and charcoal (high calorie content). The rotation period is
about seven years in the subtropics.
€Soil improvement„leaves which fall to the ground are equivalent to manure in
Nitrogen content, so Leucaena greatly benefits other plants which are inter-
cropped with it. Sometimes the leaves and young branches are cut off, then
carried away and incorporated into other fields. The root system is aggressive,
with a long tap root; this breaks up the topsoil and so improves water retention
and reduces erosion, while nutrients are brought up from deep down where they
would have remained beyond reach of other crops.
€Reforestation and windbreaks.
€Young pods and seeds (40…45% protein) are eaten by humans.
€Shade crop, for crops such as coffee and cacao.
€Support crop, for climbing crops such as Lima beans.
€In shifting cultivation, Leucaena can be planted after the final crop, which
reduces the fallow period so that the next crop can be planted earlier.
LIMITATIONS
€Mimosine toxicity„see ToxicityŽ, above.
€Leucaena normally only grows well below about 500 m above sea level.
€The plants need a fertile, well drained, non-acidic soil with low aluminium levels
and high levels of phosphorus, calcium, sulphur, molybdenum and zinc.
€The seedlings grow very slowly and so are often smothered by weeds.
€Despite this, the plants can grow so aggressively that they become a weed.
€Tsetse flies can breed in the plants, especially the more bushy Hawaiian types.



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278TONY WINCH
Lupin
Lupinus species
Lupine, {Texas} Bluebonnet (Lupinus subcarnosus) Lupin (French); Wolfsbohne
(1)
(German); Lupino (Spanish & Italian); Tremoo{seed or plant}, Tremoceiro{plant}
(Portuguese); Turmas (India); Turmus (Arabia)
(1)
In the Andes L. mutabilis (Syn. L. taurus), the Pearl Lupin, has been cultivated for
at least 1500 years and is known as Tarwi. Other names used for the Pearl Lupin
include Taura, Tarin, Tarhui, Altramuz, Choco and Ullu.
Lupins have great potential as a high protein source in temperate and cool
subtropical regions, as food for both humans and animals. Most species also have a
high oil content, especially the Pearl Lupin which contains 12…24%. They are also
widely grown to be used as green manure, a topic discussed in Section 1Hd,
page 69.
 Lupins are in the genus Lupinus of the pea family Leguminoseae (or Fabaceae).
The name lupinŽ comes from the Latin word for wolf, in the mistaken belief that
the plants depleted or wolfedŽ nutrients from the soil.
 A great deal of plant breeding effort has been devoted to developing varieties of
lupins with a low alkaloid content, to produce sweetŽ lupins. The so-called bitterŽ
lupins contain 0.3…3% of alkaloid and are generally toxic to both humans and
animals if eaten in the raw state. Before consumption the grain must be laboriously
prepared, often by soaking in water and then cooking thoroughly.
 The cultivated grain lupins are annuals. The seed normally germinates rapidly to
produce vigorous fast growing seedlings. When the first flower head is formed, the
main stem develops lateral branches which also form flowers; these in their turn
produce more lateral branches, the process continuing indefinitely, producing
flowers, pods, seeds and leaves whose numbers increase in geometrical progression. 
 Lupins have a strong taproot that penetrates deeply into the soil, and a well-
developed root system. They are capable of producing 50 MT/ha of vegetation,
containing 1.75 MT/ha of protein.
 FAO estimated a worldwide production of 930,000 MT for the year 2004.
 There are more than 300 species of Lupin, which can make their identification
rather difficult. The Pearl Lupin and the White Lupin have been cultivated for
thousands of years, in the Andes and the Mediterranean respectively. Today there
are about seven species that are important in food production, as follows:
White (Egyptian) Lupin„L. albus (Syn. L. termis). Grown in the Mediterranean,
Upper Nile, Madeira, Canaries and sometimes in central and southeast Europe,
Georgia, Ethiopia, South Africa, Australia, southeast North America and South
America. Flowers are white, tinged with blue or violet, and are not scented. Pods up
to 13 cm long, large off-white seeds. 30…150 cm tall.
Pearl Lupin (Tarwi) „L. mutabilis (Syn. L. taurus). See above. Mainly found in
the Andes. Determinate and indeterminate forms are found. Flowers are normally
blue, with white or sometimes yellow marks, which turn violet and then brown
before dying. The grain contains 12…24% oil and up to 50% protein, comparable to
soybeans, but also contains bitter tasting toxic alkaloids. 90…180 cm tall.



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Blue (Narrow-leaved) Lupin„L. angustifolius. Grown commercially in northern
Europe, New Zealand, southeastern North America, France, South Africa and
southwest Australia. Flowers light to dark blue, tinged with purple, or sometimes
pink or white. 20…150 cm tall.
Yellow Lupin„L. luteus. Grown to a limited extent on sandy soils in northern
Europe, South Africa, Australia, Spain, Portugal and the Mediterranean coast.
Flowers are a bright golden yellow. 20…80 cm tall.
Sand Plain or West Australian Blue Lupin„L. cosentinii. Grown in northwest
Africa, southwest Spain, south Portugal and Australia. Flowers are bright blue, with
a yellow spot on the standard. Very vigorous growth. 20…120 cm tall.
Egyptian Lupin„L. termis. Grown in Sudan on flooded land which is too hard or
saline for other crops. The grain is mildly bitter and poisonous when raw, but is
edible after soaking and boiling.
The entire global production of lupin seed constitutes less than 2% of the total
reported production of grain legumes, and they are normally grown for human food
only in subsistence farming situations. The major producers are Russia, Poland,
Australia, South Africa and Italy.
PLANTING
Soil: lupins generally prefer well drained, acid to neutral soil (classified as tolerantŽ
to soil acidity), without free lime, though each species has slightly different needs:
… L. albus„the most susceptible to waterlogging, though it tolerates some salinity.
… L. mutabilis„tolerates sandy and acid soils.
… L. angustifolius„best on moderately acid/neutral soils, and needs plenty of P and K.
… L. luteus„better adapted to infertile soils, with pH below 6.5…7.
… L. cosentinii„susceptible to Molybdenum deficiency, fairly tolerant of infertile
soils.
 All species of Lupins need plenty of phosphate and sulphur; about 200 kg/ha of
22% superphosphate is often recommended, with an additional 50 kg/ha of potash in
soils where potassium levels are low.
 Lupins are an excellent green manure crop, and can fix 400 kg/ha or more of
Nitrogen. This crop could be much more widely grown in various crop rotation
systems, both to increase the Nitrogen level and the organic matter content of soils.
Seed rate: some examples have been quoted, in kg/ha:
L. angustifolius„67…90 (North America), 67…78 (South Africa).
L. albus„179 (North America), 106 (South Africa).
L. luteus„45…67 (North America), 67…78 (South Africa).
An average seed rate of about 90 kg/ha can be used as a general guide.
Approx. 3…4,000 seeds/kg.
Spacing: 10…20 cm between plants, 15…20 cm between rows. The seed is often
broadcast, especially when sown as a green manure crop.
Rotation: should not be grown on the same land more than once in four years.



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280TONY WINCH
Depth: 2.5 cm, or even less in retentive soils with plenty of moisture.
Inoculation: recommended unless a well nodulated lupin crop was grown the
previous year, but note rotationŽ above ie only grow lupins in a 3…4 year rotation
with other crops.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: most varieties are long-day, though this aspect is not well researched.
Growth period: about 105…180 days for most improved varieties. Some older types
need six months or more in which to mature.
Temperature: lupins are semi-hardy and generally need a five month period with
average temperatures of 15…25°C. The optimum for growth is 18…24°C. There is
variation between spp.:
… L. albus and L. mutabilis„fairly frost tolerant.
… L. angustifolius„best in cool conditions, and can withstand minus 6°C in the
vegetative state.
… L. luteus„only tolerates light frosts.
… L. cosentinii„susceptible to frost and needs heat for good growth.
Rainfall: lupins should have 400…1000 mm of evenly distributed water, as they
suffer during any period of extended drought. L. cosentinii is the most drought
resistant, and L. mutabilis also has some drought resistance.
Altitude: in Kenya lupins grow between 1500 and 2400 m. In the Andes L.
mutabilis grows at 1800…4000 m.
Pests: Aphids„especially on sweet varieties of L. luteus, they attack at the bud
stage; they also transmit virus diseases. Can be controlled with sprays (eg Bidrin)
though reinfestation can occur.
… Budworm (Earworm)„the larvae enter pods and eat the seeds. Controlled by
early planting, using early varieties and sprays (eg Dipterex or carbaryl compounds). 
L. luteus is the most susceptible to attack, and L. angustifolius the least susceptible.
Other pests which can create problems are: Thrips, Red-legged Earth Mites, Lucerne
Fleas, Root Weevils, Lupin Maggots, White-fringed Beetles, Grasshoppers, Root-
knot nematodes, slugs and snails.
Diseases: these can be serious and cause large loss of yield. Lupinosis can be big
trouble:
… Lupinosis„caused by Phomopsis leptostromiformis fungus which can produce a
toxin that damages the liver of ruminants which eat the infected seed (or stems);
sometimes fatal. The danger increases in the days following heavy rain. Controlled
with resistant varieties and/or fungicides such as benomyl just before pod formation.
… Brown Leaf Spot„especially in cool, humid conditions. L. albus is very sus-
ceptible. The disease is seed-borne, and also survives on crop residues, which should
be removed and destroyed. No effective control methods are available.
… Anthracnose and Mildew„especially in warm, humid conditions. Some varieties
have some resistance.
… Grey Leaf Spot„especially with L. angustifolius. Neither L. albus nor L. luteus
are infected.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK281
… Root Rots„several kinds can cause problems.
… Virus Diseases„there are also several, including BYMV (Bean Yellow Mosaic
Virus), which also infects beans and peas. Symptoms: a mosaic mottling, leaflets are
distorted and the plants have a bunched, distorted growth. With L. angustifolius the
growing point bends and blackens, and the plant dies if it is infected before
flowering. Controlled with clean seed, early planting and aphid control.
YIELD
The yield potential of lupin grain is more than 5 MT/ha, though in many areas the
average yields are no more than 500…600 kg/ha, due mainly to excessive flower
drop.  Yields in South Africa have been reported as varying from 290 to 1700
kg/ha, the difference often being attributed to planting date. 
 The FAO estimated average yield world-wide in 2004 was 1.2 MT/ha, varying
from the highest national average of 2.7 MT in Chile to the lowest national average
in Syria of 480 kg/ha.
 With good growing conditions, yields of 1.5…2 MT/ha should be obtained.
UTILISATION
€Seed/grain of lupins can be used for either animal or human food: for humans
the grain is soaked in water for some time, rinsed and then boiled. The most
commonly used species is the White (Egyptian) Lupin L. albus. Pearl Lupin is
also grown and eaten, mainly by the rural population of the Andes. Lupins can
also be used as a substitute for coffee or eggs, or as a source of asparagine for
the production of tuberculin. For animals, the concentrate is a protein source 
in cattle, sheep, pig and poultry food, or a s a substitute for groundnut cake,
fishmeal or soybean meal.
€Flour is used to fortify bread, or to substitute for soybean flour in meat
products, noodles, pasta, bakery products, etc.
€Whole plant is used as a green manure crop, or for animal fodder, either grazed
or for hay or silage. In Peru lupins are planted around pea and bean fields as a
bitter hedge plant to discourage animals from grazing. In New Zealand and
elsewhere lupins are used to enable trees to become established in very sandy
regions, for erosion control, etc; the sand is first stabilised with Marram grass
and other grasses, and lupins are then planted into the grass to enable the tree
seedlings to survive.
€Stubble, the lower part of the stems left in the field after harvest, can be
suitable for animal grazing, although whenever the plant stems of lupins are
eaten there is always the possibility that lupinosis will develop.
LIMITATIONS
€Alkaloids are often present in the grain of older, unimprovedŽ and bitter
varieties of lupin. These can be removed, but even after the grain has been
steeped in water for some days and then cooked there is always some
uncertainty as to the amount of insoluble alkaloids that remain.



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282TONY WINCH
€Yield of grain is often rather low, often due to poor seed set and other fertility
problems. If beehives are placed in the lupin fields, pollination is usually greatly
improved. Production of green matter, for green manure or animal food, is
however often good.
€Market prices are often much lower for lupins than for cereals or other
legumes.
€Lupinosis„see page 280, under DiseasesŽ.
€Shattering, or dehiscenceŽ, can be a problem with indeterminate varieties,
especially L. mutabilis the Pearl Lupin (Tarwi). Even if the pods do not lose
their seed from shattering, they tend to ripen over a long period so that the lower
pods are mature while the upper pods are still green. This can be a problem for
mechanised harvesting, but for subsistence farmers it may be an advantage as
the supply of food continues for a long time.
€Cross-pollination occurs with many species, so that maintenance of pure strains
of seed is difficult for seed producers. The rate of cross-pollination is about
20… 25% for L. luteus Pearl Lupin and 10% for L. albus White (Egyptian) Lupin.
€Adaptation of many varieties is not very wide; they can be very specific in their
soil and temperature requirements.
€Diseases are sometimes a serious problem; this fact may exclude lupins from
being grown in certain areas, especially humid ones. 
Tepary Bean
Phaseolus acutifolius var. acutifolius (Syn. Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifolius)
Pavi, Pawi, Rice Haricot Bean, Teparies, Texan/Texas Bean (North America)
Tepary Bohne (Germany); Escomite (Spanish); Dinawa (Africa„also used for
Cowpeas); Frijol Trigo (Chile); Garbancillo Bolando (Mexico); Haricot Riz (Algeria);
Haricot Sudan (Senegal), Yori Mui
The Tepary Bean occurs wild in Arizona and northwestern Mexico, where it was
cultivated by the Aztecs 5000 years ago. It is still grown to some extent in these
areas, and also in some hot, dry parts of Africa.
 It can be a useful crop if a rapid food supply is needed in areas with low rainfall
and high temperatures, where the tepary bean can be grown as a catch crop. It will
often produce some yield where other legumes would fail, and provides food for
both humans and animals.
 The plant is an annual, with pointed trifoliate leaves. Wild types have vines up to
10m long to enable the plant to climb desert shrubs. Cultivated types or mainly bush
type (or semi-viny) about 30 cm tall. Several named varieties are available.
 Dried beans contain approximately 9.5% water, 22…25% protein, 1…1.4% fat,
57…66% carbohydrate, 3.4…4.5% fibre and 4.2% ash. 
 The beans are almost round or oblong, about 8 × 6 mm, average weight 0.15 g,
not glossy, white, yellow, brown, or deep violet, either entirely coloured or flecked.
The fresh seeds absorb water easily, though the testa hardens during storage.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK283
 When grown as animal fodder, a reasonable crop of tepary beans can produce
between five and ten MT/ha dry weight of hay.
PLANTING
Propagation: by seed, when soil temperature reaches about 70°C. Seed takes about
9 days to germinate. The flowers are thought to be self-pollinated. Inoculation:
similar procedures and rhizobia to lima bean inoculation.
Soil: must be well drained. Not heavy clays. Moderately tolerant of saline soil, and
tolerant of alkaline soils.
Seed rate: 11…17 kg/ha when sown in rows, 28…34 kg/ha when broadcast and 65…70
kg/ha when grown as a forage crop. 6000…7000 seeds per kg (approx. 0.15 g each).
Spacing: 60…90 cm between rows, 7.5…25 cm between plants. Sometimes 3 or 4
seeds are sown on mounds about 45 cm high. Can be grown in a 10 cm square grid.
Depth: 1.0…10 cm„varies according to soil type, moisture and the variety of bean.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: short-day (some day-neutral varieties exist).
Growth period: 60 days for early varieties in the tropics, 70…90 days for most
varieties, up to about 120 days in cooler regions.
Temperature: adapted to hot, dry conditions with bright sunshine. Intolerant of
frost. Night temperatures should not be lower than about 8°C.
Rainfall: very drought resistant, and by nature of its rapid growth tepary beans often
escapeŽ from long drought periods. 500…600 mm per year or less is enough.
However, moist soil is needed for germination and early growth. Tolerates heavy
bursts of rain, but not much more than about 1000 mm per year. Grows well under
irrigation, best done three times before flowering. Not suited to the wet tropics.
Altitude: in Mexico and Arizona, the homeland of the tepary bean, it is grown in the
middle altitudes. When grown on the coast of Algeria it was observed that the
growth period was extended.
Pests: tepary beans are fairly resistant to insect attack. The Black Bean Aphid can be
a problem, but is easily controlled with nicotine sprays. In storage it can be attacked
by the Rice Weevil. It seems to be much more resistant to the other common storage
pest the Bean Weevil.
Diseases: rarely a problem. Rhizoctonia Root Rot may occur in wetter conditions.
YIELD
Seed yields of tepary beans are modest, as you would expect, since the crop is
normally only planted in unfavourable conditions. Not only that, it produces its seed
in record time, less than two months in some cases. 
 In Uganda yields of 450…770 kg/ha have been reported, while in North America
dryland crops gave 500…780 kg/ha and irrigated crops 900…1680 kg/ha. Yield and
production statistics for this crop are not available from FAO.
 Fodder yields are around 5…10 MT/ha of dry hay.



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284TONY WINCH
UTILISATION
€The main use for the tepary bean is for the dried seed, which is similar to the
haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) in many ways, though it is generally less
palatable. In Uganda the seed is normally boiled, then ground and added to
soup. In Mexico the seed is sometimes soaked in water to produce a gelatinous
extract used in soup preparation.
€The tepary bean is a fast growing catch crop (page 62) which can also be used
for green manure (page 69), as a cover crop (page 63) and for animal fodder.
€After threshing the pods and haulm„which contain about 10% protein„can be
fed to animals.
LIMITATIONS
€Tepary beans are very labour intensive at harvest time. The pods dehisce readily.
€The seed becomes very hard during storage and needs to be cooked for a long
time, and unfortunately fuel is often in short supply in the very areas where the
tepary bean would grow well.
€Food prepared from tepary bean often has a strong flavour, and may also have a
bad smell ie less palatable than haricot beans.
€The plants need hot, bright sunshine with no frost nor temperatures at night
below about 8°C.
Winged Bean (Four-angled Bean)
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus
Asparagus Pea or Bean, Dragon Bean, Four-cornered Bean, Goa Bean, Mauritius
(1)
Bean, Manila Bean , Princess Pea, Wing Bean, Winged Pea; Haricot Dragon, Pois
(2)
Ail, Pois Carr  (French); Goabohne (German); Sesquidilla, Juda Careta
(3)
(Spanish); Fava de Cavalo  (Portuguese); Too-a-poo, Tua Pu (Thailand); Amali,
Batong-baimbing, Burma Haricot, Calamismis, Cigarillas, Sigarilya, Garbanso,
Pallang, Parupa-gulung, Sabidokong, Segidilla, Sererella (Philippines)
(1)
Also used for Marrowfat Peas (Pisum sativum) and sometimes for Grass Pea/
Chickling Pea/ Vetch (Lathyrus sativus).
(2)
Also used for Bambara Groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea).
(3)
Also used for small horse bean (Vicia faba minor).
The winged bean should not be confused with Lotus tetragonolobus (Syn.
Tetragonolobus purpureus), also known as the winged pea or asparagus pea and
which also has four-sided and four-winged pods. This plant grows wild in the
Mediterranean and is occasionally grown in temperate regions for its young pods,
eaten as a vegetable.
 The winged bean is a fast growing perennial legume. It has particular value in
the wet tropics where it provides not only oil and protein in its seed, but also has
protein-rich tubers and edible pods and foliage. This species has excellent potential



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK285
to provide protein in hot and humid conditions that are unfavourable to other
leguminous crops. The crop also benefits subsequent crops planted since the roots
have very many large root nodules, sometimes more than 1cm in diameter, which fix
large quantities of Nitrogen.
 Although winged beans are currently grown mainly as a subsistence or market
garden crop in small areas, they have great potential as a source of protein and soil
Nitrogen. They could be grown in very large areas which are too hot and wet for
soybeans, although they are not a very suitable crop for mechanised agriculture.
 All parts of the plant are edible: the seeds, pods, flowers, tubers and leaves can
all be eaten, by both humans and animals. An edible oil is extracted from the seed,
and the tubers have an exceptionally high protein content of 8…25% and up to 30%
starch. Cassava, by contrast, has about 0.7% protein and sweet potatoes 1.2…1.5%.
 The available varieties of winged bean are very variable, in shape, size and
colour of flowers, pods and seeds. Some varieties produce both seed and tubers,
others produce only seed. 
 The seed is about 1 cm long, smooth and shining and either white, yellow, brown
or black in colour. It is a climbing perennial, but is normally treated as an annual.
The stem can grow four metres high if it is supported.
 The grain has excellent nutritive and cooking qualities, similar to soybeans,
containing about 33% (29…37%) protein, 15…18% oil, 5% fibre and 32% carbo-
hydrate. It is rich in lysine and is therefore a good supplement to a cereal based
diet, which is deficient in lysine. 
 The tubers are also valuable, containing (@ 9% moisture content) 20…25%
protein, 1% fat, 5.4% fibre and 56% carbohydrate. 
The pods (per 100 mg of edible portion, @ 92% m.c.) contain 42 mg Calcium,
570 I.U. Vitamin A potency and useful amounts of other nutrients.
 Nowadays winged beans are grown throughout the humid tropics, particularly in
Papua New Guinea, southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. In Africa they are widely grown
in Nigeria and Ghana, and they are also grown in the West Indies and southern
Florida.
PLANTING
Propagation: winged bean seed is planted directly into the field. The seed coats are
sometimes nicked with a file or sandpaper to improve germination rates and speed. 
Soil: almost any soil which is not too saline or waterlogged, including soils with low
Nitrogen. In clay soils however the tubers are less well developed.
Seed rate: about 4…6 kg/ha. 100 seeds weigh about 30…40 g ie 3000…4000 seeds 
per kg.
Spacing: very variable. For pods and seed the plants are normally grown up stakes,
while for tubers they are left unstaked, and sometimes treated as perennials. 
Two or three seeds are normally planted on hills, at spacings of between 60 × 60 cm
and 4 × 4 m. Average is about 1.3 m × 0.6 m for seed and pod crops. For tuber 
crops, spacing is about 60 × 10 cm, without supports.
The plants prefer to be in full sunlight. 
Depth: 2.5…6 cm.



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286TONY WINCH
Inoculation: winged beans are not normally inoculated as nodulation occurs
naturally very readily, apparently with the Cowpea group of Rhizobia.
Intercropping: very common, with many different crops such as sweet potatoes,
sugar cane, taro, bananas, green vegetables and other legumes.
GROWTH CONDITIONS
Day length: short-day. In long days, ie outside the tropics, older varieties tend to
produce excessive vegetative growth and few flowers. Some recently developed
varieties are day neutral, and so will set seed in higher latitudes.
Growth period: plants of some varieties can survive and produce for five years or
more.
…pods„50…90 days for first pods, continuing for several weeks or months.
… seed„180…270 days. Some modern varieties mature in 110…120 days.
… tubers„120…240 days.
Temperature: winged beans require hot weather, with at least 180 frost-free days
from planting seed to harvesting mature pods. After a frost the plants of some
varieties will recover due to the large starchy tubers, provided these have not been
frosted. 
°
In Asia, winged beans are mainly grown between 20N and 10°S.
Rainfall: if well distributed, 1500 mm per year is enough. Optimum is about 2500
mm or more per year. The crop is often irrigated, and does not tolerate long dry
periods.
Altitude: 0…2100 m
Pests: rarely a problem, especially because winged beans are normally cultivated
in mixtures in small areas. Bean Fly, caterpillars, leafminers, grasshoppers, spider
mites and root-knot nematodes may cause some damage.
Diseases: also rarely a problem, though False Rust can be serious, in Papua New
Guinea for example. Crown Rot and Leaf Spot also may infect winged beans.
YIELD
Little information is available, so the following may not be completely realistic.
Pods„harvested continuously over a long period. In trials in Malaysia more than 
35 MT/ha were reported.
Seed (grain)„trial results: 
Ghana 820…1380 kg/ha; IITA, Nigeria 2400 kg/ha; Malaysia 4580 kg/ha.
Tubers„2.4…11 MT/ha, increased when the flowers are removed, and when grown
on hills (mounds) or when using varieties bred to produce tubers rather than pods
and grain.



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK287
UTILISATION
€Pods„the winged beans main use, they can be eaten raw, or sliced and boiled
like haricot (French) beans, and used in soups and curries. They are pale green,
6-9" long and one inch wide when mature. The pods are square, with the four
corners tapering into the thin wings. Protein content is about 2%.
€Seeds„nutritionally superior to groundnuts (see Introduction); sometimes
roasted and eaten like groundnuts. They are very similar in composition to
soybeans„„ and are more palatable and could be used similarly in high protein
foods, soap and cooking oil. In Indonesia, tempeh and tofu are made from the
mature seeds. The half ripe seeds can be eaten raw, fried or steamed. Flour
made from the grain is suitable as a milk substitute in treating kwashiorkor. 
€Presscake, after oil extraction, is suitable for both human and animal food.
€Tubers„best eaten when they are about as thick as a thumb, either raw
(peeled) or boiled like potatoes or roasted. They should be air dried for a few
days, then peeled before cooking. To promote tuber development, the flowers
are sometimes pinched off. The tubers are considered to be a delicacy in
Myanmar. Exceptionally high protein content of about 25%.
€Foliage„the leaves and flowers can be eaten raw, or steamed and added to
soups and curries. The flowers can be fried in oil, tasting like mushrooms. Both
the stems and leaves make valuable animal food, with a protein content of about
6%.
€Green manure and cover crop„very useful for both purposes, especially due
to its efficient Nitrogen fixation. In Myanmar, sugarcane was reported to have
yielded up to 50% more when grown after a winged bean crop.
LIMITATIONS
€Shortage of seed of winged beans, especially of improved varieties with proven
adaptability to different soils, climates and day length.
€Need to support the plants for the production of seed or pods. High labour
requirement as a result, and there is also a need to supply stakes and other
support material.
€Indeterminate growth habit ie long periods during which the pods and seeds are
maturing. As a result the winged bean is not yet a suitable crop for large scale
commercial planting. For subsistence farmers this is not a problem, in fact it is a
useful quality as food is provided over a period of several months.
€The mature, dry seed (grain) must be cooked before eating, though pods and
immature seed can be eaten raw without any ill effects.
€There is not enough practical, well researched agronomic information on the
winged bean.



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 SECTION 3
A.Naming & Classification of Food Crops 288
B.Seed Purchase Procedures 310
C.Conversion Tables and Statistics 313
D.Some Issues to Consider When Planning
or Assessing Agricultural Development
 or Rehabilitation Programmes317
3A. NAMING & CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD CROPS
This list of cultivated plant names is far from exhaustive, but it is included here in an
attempt to minimise some of the misunderstandings that can arise when trying to
identify the names of food crops. Confusion often arises with incorrect identification
and naming of plant species, especially with legumes, and also when more than one
language is involved.
 Additional local names for the most common food crops are outlined in Section 2,
Crop Descriptions„Description and Characteristics of the Main Food CropsŽ.
Comprehensive details on plant taxonomy are available online at the USDAs
website GRINthe Germplasm Resources Information Network.
 The following types of food plants are not included in the list below:
sugar crops, nut trees, oil palms, coffee, tea, beverages, stimulants, herbs, edible
seaweeds, mushrooms or fungi, or wild food plants.
A. CEREALS AND PSEUDOCEREALS
Adlay Coix lachryma-jobi. Jobs Tears
African Rice Oryza glaberrima. Arroz de Guinea (Spanish), Riz de Casamance
(French)
Amaranths Amaranthusspp.see 2G
Barley Hordeum vulgaresee 2A
Barnyard Millet Echinochloa crus-galli (Syn. Panicum crus-galli)
Bread Wheat Triticum aestivum(Syn. T. sativum, T. vulgare). Wheatsee 2A
Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum (Syn. F. sagittatum)see 2A
Cheena Panicum miliaceum. Common Millet, Proso Millet, Panic Millet etc2A
Chicken Corn Sorghum drummondii. Shatter Cane, Sudan Grass
Durra (Sorghum) Sorghum durra
Durum Wheat Triticum durum. Macaroni Wheatsee 2A
Einkorn (Wheat) Triticum monococcumcultivated Einkorn, T. boeoticumwild
Einkorn
Emmer (Wheat) Triticum dicoccum and T. dicoccoideswild Emmer
English Wheat Triticum turgidum. Rivet, Cone
Feterita Sorghum caudatum
Fonio Digitaria exilis (D. iburuawhite-seeded form). Acha, Fundi, Hungry Rice
Guinea Corn Sorghum guineense
288



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK289
Haraka Millet Paspalum scrobiculatum (Syn. P. commersonii, P. polystachyum).
Kodo(a) Millet, Ditch Millet, Scrobic Millet, Ricegrass
Hegarisee 2A, Sorghum
Hungry Rice Digitaria exilis (D. iburuawhite-seeded form). Fonio, Fundi, Acha
Japanese Barnyard Millet Echinochloa frumentacea (Syn. Panicum  frumentaceum)
Jobs Tears Coix lacryma-jobi. Adlay (Millet). Larmes de Job (French); Hiobstrne
(German); Juzudama (Japanese); Lgrimas de Job (Spanish), Lgrimas de San Pedro
(Spanish)
Jungle Rice Echinochloa colona. Shama Millet
Kafir Corn Sorghum caffrorum. Sorgo Kafir (Spanish)
Kaniwa Chenopodium pallidicaule Canihua, Kuimi (Bolivia), Millmi (Bolivia),
Ccaihua (Peru)
Kaoliang Sorghum nervosum. Chinese Sorghum, Brown-seeded Sorghum.
Kiwacha Amaranthus caudatus
Kodo (Koda) Millet Paspalum scrobiculatum
Maize Zea mayssee 2A
Mands Forage Plant Pennisetum typhoides. Pearl or Bulrush Milletsee 2A
Millets  see 2A for local and botanical names of the various millet species.
Milo Sorghum subglabrescens. Sorghumsee 2A
Oats Avena sativa. Yellow or White Oatssee 2A
Perennial Buckwheat Fagopyrum cymosum
Quinoa Chenopodium quinoaQuingua. Petit riz, Riz du Prou (French), Reismelde
(German); Arroz del Per, Quinua (Spanish).
Red Oats Avena byzantina Avoine Byzantine (French), Aveia Amarela (Portuguese),
Avena Roja (Spanish), Mittelmeerhafer (German)
Rice Oryza sativasee 2A
Rye Secale cerealesee 2A
Sanwa Millet Echinochloa frumentacea (Syn. Panicum frumentaceum)see 2A
Shallu Sorghum roxburghii. Indian Sorghum, Popping Sorghum. Shaaru (Japan)
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor (Syn. S. vulgare)see 2A
Spelt Triticum spelta. Espelta (Portuguese)
Tartary Buckwheat Fagopyrum taricum Green Buckwheat, India Wheat.
Ku Chiao Mai (Chinese), Ku Qiao (Chinese); Sarrasin de Tartarie (French); Tatarischer
Buchweizen (German); Alforfn de Tartaria (Spanish)
Teff Eragrostis tef (formerly E. abyssinica)see 2A
Teosinte Euchlaena mexicana (Syn. Zea mays ssp mexicana)
Central Plateau Teosinte, Chalco Teosinte, Durango Teosinte, Mexican Teosinte,
Nobogame Teosinte, Rayana Grass, Maz Silvestre (Spanish)
Triticale Triticosecale  „Triticum X Secalesee 2A, Rye
Wheat Triticum aestivum (Syn. T. sativum, T. vulgare)see 2A
White Durra Sorghum cernuum. Jerusalem Durra, Egyptian Millet, Indian Grain s.
Wild Rice Zizania aquatica. American Wild Rice, Canda Rice, Indian Rice, Water
Oatssee 2A



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290TONY WINCH
B. LEGUMES
Adzuki Bean Vigna angularis (Phaseolus angularis). Atsuki, Azuki; Haricot
Adzuki, Haricot  Feuilles Angulaires (French)
African Locust Bean Parkia filicoidea
Alfalfa (Lucerne) Medicago sativa. Rashqa (Dari)
American Groundnut Apios americana American Potato Bean, Ground Bean, wild
Bean. Gland de terre (French); Erdbirne (German); Apio Tuberoso (Spanish)
Angola Pea Cajanus cajan (Syn. C. indicus). Pigeon Peasee 2B
Arhar (Arhair) Cajanus cajan (Syn. C. indicus). Pigeon Peasee 2B
Asparagus Bean/Asparagus Pea Vigna sesquipedalis (Syn. V. sinensis var.
sesquipedalis, Dolichus sesquipedalis). Cowpeasee 2B. A.k.a. Winged Bean2G
Bambara Groundnut Voandzeia subterranea (Syn. Vigna subterranea)see 2G
Bengal Gram Cicer arietinum. Chickpeasee 2B
Black-eye(d) Pea (Bean) Vigna unguiculata. Cowpeasee 2B
Black Bean Phaseolus vulgaris. Haricot (French) Beansee 2B
Black Gram Phaseolus mungo (Syn. Vigna mungo) Mash, Urad, Urd, Woolly Pyrol.
Mashang (Pashtu)
Blue Vetchling Lathyrus sativus. Grass Peasee 2B
Bodi Bean Vigna sesquipedalis (Syn. V. sinensis var. sesquipedalis, Dolichus
sesquipedalis)
Bonavist(a) Bean Lablab purpureus (Syn. L. niger, L. vulgaris, Dolichos lablab).
Lablab, Hyacinth Bean, Egyptian Kidney Bean, Indian Butter Bean
Broad Bean Vicia fabasee 2B
Butter Bean, Burma Bean Phaseolus lunatus (Syn. P. limensis, P. inamoenus).
Lima Beansee 2B
Cajan Pea Cajanus cajan (Syn. C. indicus). Pigeon Peasee 2B
Chickling Pea (Chickling Vetch) Lathyrus sativus. Grass Peasee 2GB
Chickpea Cicer arietinumsee 2B
China Pea (Bean)see 2B, Cowpea
Chufa Cyperus esculentus. Earth Almond, Tigernut, Water Grass, Yellow Nut
Sedge/Grass. Amande de Terre, Choufa, Souchet Comestible (French); Erdmandel
(German); Cebolln, Juncia Avellanada (Spanish)
Cluster Bean Cyamopsis tetragonoloba. Guar, Siam Bean (India); Cyamopse 
Quatre Ailes (French); Mgwaru (Swahili)
Common Bean Phaseolus vulgaris. Haricot (French) Beansee 2B
Congo Goober Voandzeia subterranea (Syn. Vigna subterranea). Bambara
Groundnutsee 2G
Congo Pea (Bean) Cajanus cajan (Syn. C. indicus). Pigeon Peasee 2B
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata and other Vigna spp.see 2B
Crowder Vignaspp. Cowpeasee 2B
Curry Bean Phaseolus lunatus (Syn. P. limensis, P. inamoenus). Lima Bean2B
Dragon Bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus. Winged Bean, Four-angled Bean2G



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK291
Earth Almond Cyperus esculentus. Chufa, Earth Almond, Tigernut, Water Grass,
Yellow Nut Sedge, Yellow Nut Grass. Amande de Terre (French), Choufa (French),
Souchet Comestible (French); Erdmandel (German), Chufa (Portuguese; Cebolln
(Spanish), Juncia Avellanada (Spanish)
Earth Nut Arachis hypogea. Groundnutsee 2B
Earth Pea(Nut) Voandzeia subterranea (Syn. Vigna subterranea). Bambara
Groundnutsee 2G
Earth-nut Pea Lathyrus tuberosa. Earth Chestnut, Earthnut Pea, Groundnut
Peavine, Tuberous Vetch. Gesse Tubreuse (French);
Knollenplatterbse (German); Arveja Tuberosa (Spanish)
Field Bean Phaseolus vulgaris or Vicia faba. Haricot Bean or Broad Bean2B
Field Pea Pisum sativum (Syn. P. arvense)see 2B
Four-angled (-cornered) Bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus. Winged Bean2G
French Bean Phaseolus vulgaris. Haricot Bean, Frijoles etcsee 2B
Goa Bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus. Winged Beansee 2G
Goober Arachis hypogea. Groundnut, Peanutsee 2B
Golden Gram Vigna radiata (Syn. Phaseolus aureus). Mung Bean, Yellow Gram2B
Grass Pea Lathryus sativus. Vetchsee 2G
Green Bean Phaseolus vulgaris. Haricot (French) Beansee 2B
Green Gram Phaseolus aureus (Syn. Vigna radiata). Oorud Bean, Mung Bean2B
Ground Bean Voandzeia subterranea (Syn. Vigna subterranea). Bambara
Groundnutsee 2G, and Kerstings Groundnut Kerstingiella geocarpa
Groundnut Arachis hypogeasee 2B
Guar Cyamopsis tetragonolobus. Cluster Beansee above
Haricot Bean Phaseolus vulgaris. French Beansee 2B
Hausa (Groundnut) Kerstingiella geocarpa (Syn.Voandzeia geocarpa). Kerstings
Groundnut, Geocarpa (Groundnut), Ground Beanalso for Bambara Groundnut;
Lentille de Terre, Fve de Kandela (French)
Horse Bean Vicia faba. Broad (Field) Beansee 2B. Also Jack Bean, see below
Horse Gram Macrotyloma uniflorus (Syn. Dolichos uniflorus, D.biflorus). Kulthi
(Bean), Madras Gram, Horse Grain, Chickpea; Grain de Cheval (French)
Horse Tamarind Leucaena leucocephala. Leucaena, Leadtree, White Popinac2G
Hyacinth Bean Lablab purpureus (Syn. L. niger, L. vulgaris, Dolichos lablab).
Lablab, Bonavist(a) Bean, Seim Bean, Egyptian Bean, Indian (Butter) Bean; Ataque,
Dolic (dEgypte), Dolic du Soudan (French); Feijo Cutelinho, Feijo da ndia,
Cumandati, Labelabe (Portuguese)
Indian Potato Apios americana. American Groundnut, Potato Bean
Indian Vetch Lathyrus sativus. Grass Peasee 2B
Jack Bean Canavalia ensiformis. Horse Bean, Common Jack Bean; Feijo Espada,
Feijo de Cobra, Feijo de Porco, Feijo Holands (Portuguese)
Jcama Pachyrrhizus erosus. Yam Bean (edible tubers and young pods)
Jerusalem Pea Vigna radiata (Syn. Phaseolus aureus). Mung Beansee 2B
Jugo(a) Bean Voandzeia subterranea (Syn. Vigna subterranea). Bambara
Groundnutsee 2G



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292TONY WINCH
Kaffir Pea (Bean) Vignasp. Cowpeasee 2B. Also name for Jugo Bean, above
Kerstings Groundnut Kerstingiella geocarpa (Syn. Voandzeia geocarpa). Geocarpa
(Groundnut), Ground Beanalso for Bambara Groundnut; Lentille de Terre, Fve
de Kandela (French)
Kidney Bean/Red Kidney Bean Phaseolus vulgaris. Haricot (French) Bean2B
Kudzu Vine Pueraria lobata (Syn. P. thunbergiana, P. montana). Fan Kot
Lablab (Bean) Lablab purpureussee Hyacinth Bean.
Lakh (Lakhori) Lathyrus sativus. Vetch, Grass Peasee 2B
Lathyrus Pea Lathyrus sativus. Vetch, Grass Peasee 2B
Lentil Lens culinaris (Syn. L. esculenta, Ervum lens)see 2B
Leucaena Leucaena leucocephala (formerly L. glauca)see 2G
Lima Bean Phaseolus lunatus (Syn. P. limensis, P. inamoenus)see 2B
Locust Bean Parkia filicoidea (Syn. P.bussei). African Locust Bean, Nitta Tree
Long Bean Vignaspp. Cowpeasee 2B
Lubia Vignaspp. Cowpeasee 2B
Lupin Lupinus spp.see 2G
Madagascar Bean Phaseolus lunatus (Syn. P. limensis, P. inamoenus). Lima Beansee
2B
Madagascar Groundnut Voandzeia subterranea. Bambara Groundnutsee 2G
Manila Bean Lathyrus sativus Grass Pea (2B) or Psophocarpus tetragonolobus
Winged Bean (2G) or Pisum sativum Marrowfat Peas
Marama Bean Tylosema esculentum. Gemsbok Bean, Tamami Berry
Marble Pea Vignaspp. Cowpeasee 2B
Mash Phaseolus mungo (Syn. Vigna mungo). Black Gram, Urd, Woolly Pyrol
Mat (Moth) Bean Vigna aconitifolius(Syn. Phaseolus trilobus,P. aconitifolius).
Moth Bean, Dew Bean Gram, Math, Mout Bean
Mauritius Bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus. Winged Beansee 2G
Monkeynut Arachis hypogea. Groundnutsee 2B
Mung Bean Vigna radiata (Syn. Phaseolus aureus)see 2B
Navy Bean Phaseolus vulgaris. Haricot (French) Beansee 2B
No-eye Pea Cajanus cajan (Syn. C. indicus). Pigeon Peasee 2B
Nut Sedge Cyperus esculentus. Yellow Nutgrass. See Chufa, Root Crops
Pea Pisum sativum (Syn. P. arvense). Field Pea, Garden Pea, English Peasee 2B
Peanut Arachis hypogea. Groundnutsee 2B
Pearl Lupin Lupinus mutabilis (Syn. L. taurus). Tarwi, Taura, Choco, Ullu2G
Pigeon Pea Cajanus cajan (Syn. C. indicus)see 2B
Pillepesara Phaseolus trilobus (perennial). Simb (Spanish)
Pindar Arachis hypogea. Groundnutsee 2B
Pinto Bean Phaseolus vulgaris. Haricot (French) Beansee 2B
Pole Bean „ name given to Haricot Bean, Broad Bean and Hyacinth Beansee 2B
Potato Bean Apios americana. American Groundnut, Indian Potato, Wild Bean
Potato Limas Phaseolus lunatus (Syn. P. limensis, P. inamoenus). Lima Bean2B
Princess Pea Psophocarpus tetragonolobus. Winged Beansee 2G
Rangoon Bean Phaseolus lunatus (Syn. P. limensis, P inamoenus). Lima Bean2B



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK293
Red Dahl Lens culinaris (Syn. L. esculenta, Ervum lens). Lentil, Split Peasee 2B
Red Gram Cajanus cajan (Syn. C. indicus). Pigeon Peasee 2B
Rice Bean Vigna umbellata (Syn. Phaseolus calcaratus). Climbing Mountain Bean,
Mambi Bean, Oriental Bean, Haricot Riz (French), Reisbohne (German), Feijo
Arroz (Portuguese), Frijol Mambe/Rojo/de Arroz (Spanish)
Rice Haricot Bean Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifolius. Tepary Beansee 2G
Runner Bean Phaseolus coccineus (P. multiflorus). Pole Bean, Multiflora Bean,
Scarlet Runner Bean; Haricot dEspagne (French); Feijo de Espanha, Feijo Flor
(Portuguese)
Salad Bean Phaseolus vulgaris. Haricot (French) Beansee 2B
Sieva Bean Phaseolus lunatus (Syn. P. limensis, P. inamoenus). Lima Bean2B
Snake Bean Vigna sesquipedalis (Syn. V. sinensis var. sesquipedalis, Dolichus
sesquipedalis)Cowpeasee 2B
Snap Bean Phaseolus vulgaris. Haricot (French) Beansee 2B
Southern Pea (Bean) Vigna spp. Cowpeasee 2B
Soybean Glycine max (Syn. G. soja, G. hispida, Soja max)see 2B
Split Pea Lens culinaris (Syn. L. esculenta, Ervum lens). Lentil, Red Dahlsee 2B
String Bean Phaseolus vulgaris. Haricot (French) Beansee 2B
Sugar Bean Phaseolus lunatus (Syn. P. limensis, P. inamoenus). Lima Bean2B
Sword Bean Canavalia gladiata. Pearson Bean, Wonder Bean; Pois Sabre [Rouge]
(French)
Tamarind Tamarindus indica Indian Tamarind, Kilytree. Tamarin, Tamarindier,
Tamarinier (French); Tamarinde, Tamarindenbaum (German); Tamarindeiro
(Portuguese); Tamarindo (Spanish)
Tarwi Lupinus mutabilis (Syn. L. taurus). Pearl Lupinsee 2G
Tepary Bean Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifoliussee 2G
Texan Bean Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifolius. Tepary Beansee 2G
Tick (Tic) Bean Vicia faba var. minor.Broad Bean, Windsor Bean etcsee 2B
Tonka Bean Dipterex spp. Feijo Baru, Feijo Cco (Portuguese)
Tonkin Bean Vignaspp. Cowpeasee 2B
Towe Phaseolus lunatus (Syn. P. limensis, P. inamoenus). Lima Beansee 2B
Tur Cajanus cajan (Syn. C. indicus). Pigeon Peasee 2B
Urd Phaseolus mungo Syn. Vigna mungo. Black Gram, Mash, Woolly Pyrol;
Haricot Mungo, Ambrique (French)
Velvet Bean Mucuna pruriens var. utilis. Mauritius Beanalso for Winged Bean;
Dolique de Floride, Haricot Velout, Pois Mascate (French)
Vetch (Grass Pea) Lathryus sativussee 2G
White Popinac Leucaena leucocephala. Leucaena, Leadtree, Horse Tamarind2G
Wild Bean Apios americana. American Groundnut, Indian Potato, Potato Bean
Windsor Bean Vicia faba var. minor. Broad Bean, Tick Bean etcsee 2B
Winged (Four-angled) Bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobussee 2G
Yam Bean Pachyrrhizus erosus or P. tuberosus. Potato Bean, Jcama
Yardlong Bean Vigna sesquipedalis. Cowpeasee 2B
Yellow Dahl Cajanus cajan (Syn. C. indicus). Pigeon Peasee 2B
Yellow Gram Vigna radiata (Syn. Phaseolus aureus). Mung Bean,Golden Gram2B



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294TONY WINCH
C. OILSEED CROPS
African Oil Palm Elaeis guineensissee Oil Palm
American Oil Palm Corozo oleifera.Dendzeiro do Par, Caiau (Portuguese)
Babacu Palm Orbignya martiana, O. oleifera
Castor Ricinus communissee 2C
Coconut Cocos nucifera. Coco(tier) (French); Cco (Portuguese)
Cohune Palm Orbignya cohune
Field Mustard Brassica campestris
Flax(seed) Linum usitatissimum. Linseedsee 2C
Goat Nut Simmondsia chinensissee Jojoba
Indian Colza Brassica campestris var. sarson
Indian Mustard Brassica juncea. Leaf Mustard. Sharsham (Pashtu)
Indian Rape Brassica campestris var. toria
Jojoba Simmondsia chinensis. Goat Nut, Deer nut, Pignut, Wild Hazel, Coffeberry,
Quinine Nut, Gray Box Bush
Linseed Linum usitatissimumsee 2C
Mahua Madhuca longifolia
Mole Bean Ricinus communis. Castor (Bean)see 2C
Mu-tree Aleurites montana. Tung, China Wood Oil; Noix dabrasin (French)
Niger Seed Guizotia abyssinicasee 2C
Oil Flax Linum usitatissimum. Linseed, Flax(seed)see 2C
Oil Palm Elaeis guineensis. African Oil Palm; Palmier  Huile (French); Dend,
Dendzeiro, Coqueiro de Dend (Portuguese)
Oilseed Rape Brassica napus. Swede rape
Olive Olea europaea
Palma Christi Ricinus communis. Castor (Bean)see 2C
Ramtil Guizotia abyssinica. Niger Seedsee 2C
Rape Brassica napus. Colza (French, Spanish & Portuguese)
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius. Aafro, Aafro Bastardo (Portuguese);
Kusum, Kurdi (Hindi); Suf (Ethiopia)
Sesame Sesamum indicum (Syn. S. orientale)see 2C
Sunflower Helianthus annuussee 2C
Tung Aleurites montana &A. fordii. China Wood Oil, Mu-tree; Noix dabrasin (Fr.)
Turnip Rape Brassica campestris (Syn. B. rapa). Sarson, Toria
D. ROOT CROPS
Aerial Yam Dioscorea bulbifera. Air Potato, Bulbil-bearing Yam, Potato Yam
African Bitter Yam Dioscorea dumetorum
African Yam Bean Sphenostylis stenocarpa. Girigiri
Air Potato Dioscorea bulbifera. Bulbil-bearing Yam, Potato Yam
Aja Dioscorea trifida. Cush-cush Yam, Yampi, Indian Yam, Mapuey
American Bitter Yam Dioscorea dumetorum. Cluster Yam, Forest Yam
American Groundnut Apios americana



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK295
Angelica Angelica archangelica
Anu Tropaeolum tuberosum. Tuberous Nasturtium, Anyu, Quecha, Apina-mama,
Mashua, Isanu, Ysano, Cubio
Ape Alocasia macrorrhiza. Giant Taro, Taamusee 2D, Taro
Arracacha Arracacia xanthorrhiza (Syn. A. esculenta)
Arrowhead Sagittaria sinensis. Tzi Koo (Chinese)
Arrowroot Maranta arundinacea. Bermudan or West Indian Arrowroot; Araruta
(Portuguese)
Asiatic Bitter Yam Dioscorea hispida
Beetroot Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris Beterraba (Portuguese)
Brazilian Arrowroot Manihot esculenta (Syn. M. utilissima, M. aipi, M. dulcis, M.
palmata). Manioc, Mandioc, Cassava, Yuccasee 2D
Bulbil-bearing Yam Dioscorea bulbifera. Air Potato, Aerial Yam, Potato Yam
Burdock Arctium lappa
Bush Yam Dioscorea persimalis
Camas Camassia esculenta
Capucine Tropaeolum tuberosum Mastouche tubreuse (France), Mayua (Peru)
Carrot Daucus carotasee 2E
Cassava Manihot esculenta (Syn. M. utilissima, M. aipi, M. dulcis, M. palmata)„2D
Celeriac Apium graveolens var. rapaceum
Celery Apium graveolens
Chinese Artichoke Stachys affinis A species of Woundwort
Chinese (Cinnamon Vine) Yam Dioscorea opposita (Syn. D. batatas)
Chinese (Lesser) Yam Dioscorea esculenta. Pana Yam
Chufa Cyperus esculentus. Tiger Nut, Earth Almond, Nutty Sedge, Yellow Nut
Grass
Cluster Yam Dioscorea dumetorum. American Bitter Yam, Cluster Yam, Forest Yam
Cocoyam Xanthosoma spp.see 2D, Taro
Coleus Coleus parviflorus (Syn. C. tuberosus)
Cush-cush Yam Dioscorea trifida. Aja, Yampi, Indian Yam, Mapuey
Dasheen Colocasia esculenta var. esculentasee 2D, Taro
Earth Nut Pea Lathyrus tuberosasee also under Legumes
East India Arrowroot Curcuma angustifolia and other Curcumaspp.
Eddoe Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorumsee 2D, Taro
Edible Canna Canna edulis. Queensland or Purple Arrowroot; Acira (S. America)
Eight-month Yam Dioscorea rotundata. White Guinea Yam
Elephant Ear Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorumsee 2D, Taro
Elephants Foot Dioscorea elephantipes. Hottentot Breadsee 2D, Taro
Elephant Yam Amorphophallus campanulatus (Syn. A. rivieri)
Florence Fennel Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce. Florentine Fennel
Forest Yam Dioscorea dumetorum. American Bitter Yam, Cluster Yam
Giant Alocasia Alocasia indica (Syn. A. macrorrhiza)
Ginger Zingiber officinale



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296TONY WINCH
Greater Yam Dioscorea alata. Water Yam, Winged Yam, Ten-month Yam, Asiatic
Yam, White Yamsee 2D, Yam
Hausa Potato Plectranthus esculentus (Syn. Coleus dazo, C. esculentus)
Horse-radish Armoracia rusticana
Indian Arrowroot Curcuma angustifolia
Indian Yam Dioscorea trifida. Cush-cush Yam, Aja, Yampi, Mapuey
Irish Potato Solanum tuberosumsee 2D
Jerusalem Artichoke Helianthus tuberosus
Jcama Pachyrrhizus erosus. Yam Bean, Potato Bean, Mexican Water Chestnut
Hamburg Parsley Petroselinum crispum
Lesser Yam Dioscorea esculenta. Chinese Yam, Pana Yam
Livingstone Potato Plectranthus esculentus (Coleus esculentus)
Mangel Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris. Mangel-wurzel
Manioc (Mandioc) Manihot esculenta (Syn. M. utilissima, M. aipi, M. dulcis,
M. palmata). Cassavasee 2D
Mapuey Dioscorea trifida. Cush-cush Yam, Aja, Yampi, Indian Yam
Mashua Tropaeolum tuberosum. Tuberous Nasturtium, Anyu, Quecha, Apina-
mama, Isanu, Ysano, Cubio
Oca Oxalis tuberosa. Iribia/Ibia(Colombia), Cuiba (Venezuela), New Zealand Yam
(New Zealand), Papa extranjera (Mexico)
Parsnip Pastinaca sativa.Cherivia or Pastinaga (Portuguese)
Potato Solanum tuberosum. Irish Potatosee 2D
Potato Bean Apois americana. Wild Bean
Potato Yam Dioscorea bulbifera. Air Potato, Aerial Yam, Bulbil-bearing Yam
Radish Raphanus sativus. Rabanete (Portuguese)
Rampion Campanula rapunculus
Rutabaga Brassica napus
Saffron Crocus Crocus sativus
Salsify Tragopogon porrifolius. Oyster Plant, Vegetable Oyster; Cercefi
(Portuguese)
Scolymus Scolymus hispanicus. Spanish Salsify, Spanish Oyster Plant
Scorzonera Scorzonera hispanica. Black Salsify
Skirret Sium sisarum. Chervis (French); Zuckerwurzel (German);
Ssaro (Portuguese); Escarava (Spanish)
Swedes Brassica napobrassica
Sweet Potato Ipomoea batatassee 2D
Tacca (Otaheite) Arrowroot Tacca pinnatifida
Tannia Xanthosoma spp.see 2D, Taro
Tarragon Artemisia dracunculusLittle Dragon, Mugwort. Herbe au Dragon (Fr.)
Taro Colocasia spp.see 2D
Tiger Nut Cyperus esculentussee Chufa
Turnip Brassica napus. Nabo (Portuguese); Shalgham (Dari)
Turnip rooted Chervil Chaerophyllum bulbosum
Ullucu Ullucus tuberosus. Papa Lisa (Peru), Melloca (Ecuador)



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK297
Wapato Sagittaria latifolia. Arrowhead, Duck Potato
Water-Chestnutsee 2E, Vegetables, below
White Guinea Yam Dioscorea rotundata. Eight-month Yam
Wild Yam Dioscorea sansibarensis
Yacon Smallanthus sonchifolius (Syn. Polymnia sonchifolius). Aricoma (Peru);
Poire de Terre (French); Jquima, Jiquimilla, Llacon, Yacn (Spanish)
Yams Dioscorea spp.see 2D
Yam Bean Pachyrrhizus erosus. Yam Bean (edible tubers and pods) and
P. tuberosus. Yam Bean, Potato Bean, Jcama (edible tubers)
Yautia Xanthosomaspp. Tannia, Tanier, (New) Cocoyamsee 2D, Taro
Yellow Guinea Yam Dioscorea cayensis. Twelve-month Yam, Cut-and-Come-
Againsee 2D
Ysano Tropaeolum tuberosum. Tuberous Nasturtium, Anyu, Quecha, Apina-mama,
Isanu, Cubio
E. VEGETABLES
Alexanders Smyrnium olusatrum. Wild Celery
Amsoi„ see Indian Mustard
Angled Loofah Luffa acutangula. Chinese Okra
Arrowhead Sagittaria sinensis (Syn. S. trifolia var. edulis). Tzi Koo (Chinese)
Asparagus Asparagus officinalis. Espargo, Aspargo (Portuguese); Marchoba
(Pashtu)
Babbingtons Leek Allium babbingtonii
Balsam Apple Momordica balsamina
Balsam Pear Momordica charantia. Bitter Gourd/Cucumber, Carilla Gourd
Basella Basella alba. Ceylon Spinach, Malabar Spinach
Bayam Amaranthus tricolor. Hinn Choy, Calaloo
Beef Steak Plant Perilla frutescens var. crispa. Perilla, Shiso (Japan)
Beet Beta vulgaris. Chard, Seakale Beet, Swiss Chard, Perpetual Spinach;
Acelga Vermelha (Portuguese)
Beetroot Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris. Raiz de Beteraba (Portuguese)
Bindi Abelmoschus esculentus (Syn. Hibiscus esculentus). Okra, Okro, Ladys
Finger, Gumbo, Gombosee 2E
Bitter Gourd Momordica charantia. Balsam Apple/Pear, Bitter Cucumber/Melon,
Carilla Gourd, Concombre Africain, Margose, Momordique (French), Balsambirne,
Bittergurke (German), Karela (India), Balsamo, Balsamito, Cundeamor (Spanish).
Black Mustard Brassica nigra
Black Salsify Scorzonera hispanica. Scorzonera. Zankai (Pashtu)
Bladder Campion Silene vulgaris
Bottle Gourd Lagenaria siceraria (Syn. L. vulgaris). Calabash Gourd, White-
flowered Gourd. Abbora Cabaa, Abbora-de-Romeiro (Portuguese)
Borecole Brassica oleraceae var. acephala. Collard, Curly Kale
Broccoli Brassica oleracea var. botrytis cauliflora (or var. italica). Brcolis or
Brcolos (Portuguese); Sheen Gulpi (Pashtu)



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298TONY WINCH
Brussels Sprouts Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera. Couve-de-Bruxelas
(Portuguese)
Buckshorn Plantain Plantago coronopus
Buffalo Gourd Cucurbita foetidissimasee 2G
Bush Squash Cucurbita pepo var. melopepo
Brussels Sprouts Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera
Cabbage Brassica oleracea var. capitata. Head Cabbage, Common Cabbage2E
Calabash Gourd Lagenaria siceraria (Syn. L. vulgaris). Bottle Gourd, White-
flowered Gourd
Calabazilla Cucurbita foetidissima. Buffalo Gourdsee 2G
Calabrese Brassica oleracea var. italica. Romanesco, (Green) Sprouting Broccoli
Cardoon Cynara cardunculus {Related to the Globe Artichoke (qv).},
(Globe) Artichoke, Artichoke Thistle, Scotch Thistle. Cardon d Espagne, Artichaut
Commun C. scolymus (French); Gemseartischocke, Kardone, Artischocke
[C. scolymus] (German); Cardo (Portuguese & Spanish), Alcachofra (Portuguese);
Cardo de comer, Alcachofa [C. scolymus], Alcaucil [C. scolymus] (Spanish)
Carrot Daucus carotasee 2E
Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. botrytis. Couve-flor (Portuguese); Gulpee
(Pashtu)
Cayenne Capsicum spp.see 2E, Peppers
Chaya Cnidoscolus aconitifolius ssp. Aconitifolius
Chayote (Choyote) Sechium edule. Cho-cho, Choko, Christophine, Vegetable Pear,
Chou-chou (French), Chuchu (Portuguese), Chocho, Pipinela, Tallote (Spanish),
Chinchayote, Camochayote, Ichintla (South America)
Cherry Tomato Lycopersicum cerasiforme
Chilicote Cucurbita foetidissima. Buffalo Gourdsee 2G
Celery Apium graveolens var. dulce (Syn. A. dulce) Aipo, Celeri (Portuguese); Silari
(Pashtu)
Celtuce Lactuca sativa var. augustana. Asparagus Lettuce, Chinese Stem Lettuce,
Woo Chu, Woh Sun
Chicory Cichorium intybus. Chicria (Portuguese)
Chinese Artichoke Stachys affinis
Chinese Broccoli Brassica oleraceae var. alboglabra. Chinese Kale, Gai Lohn
Chinese Cabbage Brassica chinensis var. pekinensis. Chinese Leaf (Leaves)
Chinese Chives Allium tuberosum (not A. odoratum). Nira, Kau, Tsoi
Chinese Leaves Brassica rapa ssp. pekinensis
Chinese Mustard Brassica juncea. (Chinese) Mustard Greens (in Snow), Brown
Mustard, Kai Tsoi
Chinese Small Onion Allium cepa var. aggregatum(Syn. Allium fistulosum)
Chinese Spinach Amaranthus spp.see 2G, Amaranths
Chinese Water-chestnut Eleocharis dulcis (Syn. E. tuberosa). Matai
Chives Allium schroenoprasum. Cebolinho, Ceboletas de Frana (Portuguese)
Chopsuy greens Chrysanthemum carinatum. Shungiku
Choyote (Chayote) Sechium edule. Christophine etc, see below



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK299
Christophine Sechium edule. Choyote (Chayote) etc, see below
Ciboule Allium cepa var. aggregatumsee Welsh Onion
Collard Brassica oleraceae var. acephala. Borecole, Curly Kale
Corn Salad Valerianella eriocarpa (V. locusta, V.olitoria). Lambs Lettuce,
Nusslisalad (Switzerland), Mache (France)
Cranberry Gourd Abobora tenuifolia. Abbora-do-Campo (Portuguese)
Cress Lepidium sativum. Garden Cress. Taratizak (Pashtu)
Cucumber Cucumis sativus. Pepino (Spanish & Portuguese); Concombre (French);
Badrang (Dari)
Cucurbits Cucurbita spp.see 2E
Curly Kale Brassica oleraceae var. acephala. Collard, Borecole
Currant Tomato Lycopersicum pimpinellifolium. Tomatoes groseille  grappes
(French)
Cushaw Cucurbita argrosperma syn C. mixta. Ayote (German and Spanish)
Dishcloth Gourd Luffa spp. Luffa, Loofah, Sponge Gourd, Vegetable Sponge
Edible Snake Gourd Tricosanthes anguina
Egg Plant Solanum melongena. Aubergine, Brinjal, Melongene; Aubergine
(French); Berinjela, Brinjela, Jiloeiro, Jil (Portuguese); Torbanjan (Pashtu)
Egusi Melon Cucumeropsis edulis and C. manii
Endive Cichorium endivia. Chicore (in French, Witloof Chicory is called
Endive)
Epazote Chenopodium ambrosoides
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare (Syn. F. oficinale)
Fig-leaf Gourd Cucurbita ficifolia. Malabar Gourd; Abbora Chila (Portuguese)
Garland Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemum coronarium. Tangho, Shungiku
Garlic Allium sativum. Alho (Portuguese); Ooga, Ozha (Pashtu)
Garlic Chives Allium tuberosum
Gboma Eggplant Solanum macrocarpon
Gherkin Cucumis anguria
Glasswort Salicornia europaea. Sea Asparagus, Marsh Samphire
Globe (French) Artichoke Cynara cardunculus var. scolymussee Cardoon.
Good King Henry Chenopodium bonus-henricus. Mercury, Lincolnshire Asparagus
Gourds Cucurbita spp.
Great-headed Garlic Allium ampeloprasum
Guinea Pepper Xylopia aethiopica
Gumbo (Gombo) Abelmoschus esculentus (Syn. Hibiscus esculentus). Okra, Ladys
Finger, Bindisee 2E
Hamburg Parsley Petroselinum crispum
Herb Patience Rumex patientia
Horse Radish Armoracia rusticana (Cochlearia armoracia)
Huazontli Chenopodium berlandieri
Ice Plant Mesembryanthemum cristallinum. Brakslaai (Africaans)
Inca Wheat Amaranthusspp.see 2G
Indian Mustard Brassica juncea Amsoi
Indian Spinach Basella alba (Syn. B. rubra)



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300TONY WINCH
Italian Dandelion Cichorium intybus
Jamaican Sorrel Hibiscus sabdariffa
Jamberry Physalis ixocarpa. Tomatillo
Japanese Bunching Onion Allium cepa var. aggregatum(Syn. A. fistulosum)„see
Welsh Onion
Jesuits Nut Trapa natans. Water Caltrops
Kale Brassica oleracea var. acephala. Borecole, CollardJosephs Coat Amaranthus spp.see 2G, Amaranths
Kohlrabi Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes (B. caulorapa). Couve Rbano
(Portuguese)
Komatsuna Brassica rapa komatsuna
Korila Cyclanthera pedata. Caygua (Haiti), Achoccha (Peru)
Kurrat Allium ampeloprasum var. kurrat
Love-lies-bleeding Amaranthus spp.see 2G
Lambs Lettuce Valerianella eriocarpa (V. locusta). Corn Salad, Nusslisalad
(Switzerland), Mache (France)
Lambs Quarters Chenopodium album. Pigweed
Land Cress Barberea verna
Leaf Beet Beta cicla. Acelga Brava (Portuguese)
Leek Allium porrum(Syn. A. ampeloprasum var. porrum). Alho-por, Alho-porro
(Portuguese); Gandana (Dari)
Lettuce Lactuca sativa. Laitue (French); Lechuga (Spanish); Alface (Portuguese);
Kahoo (Pashtu)
Ling Trapa bicornis Water-chestnut
Loofah Luffa spp. Luffa, Dishcloth Gourd, Sponge Gourd, Vegetable Sponge
Lotus Nelumbo nucifera
Madeira Vine Boussingaulia cordifolia (Anredera cordifolia)
Malabar Gourd Cucurbita ficifolia. Fig-leaf Gourd; Abbora Chila (Portuguese)
Malabar Spinach Basella rubra var. alba. Ceylon Spinach
Mallow Malva verticillata (M. crispa)
Marrow Cucurbita spp.see 2E
Milk Thistle Silybum marianum
Miners Lettuce Montia perfoliata (Claytonia perfoliata). Winter Purslane
Missouri Gourd Cucurbita foetidissima. Buffalo Gourdsee 2G
Mizuna Brassica rapa ssp. nipposinica var. laciniata (or var. japonica)
Mock Orange Cucurbita foetidissima. Buffalo Gourdsee 2G
Mountain Spinach„Atriplex hortensis. Orache, Orach
Multiplier Onion Allium cepa var. aggregatum. Potato Onionsee 2E, Onion
Mustard Sinapis alba (Brassica juncea). Sharsham (Pashtu and Dari)
Naples Onion Allium neapolitanum. Cebolinho Branco (Portuguese)
New Zealand Spinach Tetragonia tetragonioides (Syn. T. expansa)Tetragone
Cornu (French); Espinafre da Nova Zelndia, Beldroega do Sul, B. de Flha Grande
(Portuguese)



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK301
New Zealand Tree Tomato Cyphomandra betacea
Okra Abelmoschus esculentus (Syn. Hibiscus esculentus). Ladys Fingersee 2E
Onion Allium cepasee 2E
Orache Atriplex hortensis. Mountain Spinach
Oyster Plant Tragopogon porrifolius. Salsify
Pak Choi Brassica rapa ssp. chinensis
Peppers Capsicum spp. and Piper nigrum (White or Black Pepper)see 2E
Pepper Tree Schinus molle
Perilla Perilla frutescens var. crispa. Beef Steak Plant, Shiso (Japan)
Pe-tsai Brassica pekinensis. Chinese Leaf
Pokeweed Phytolacca americana
Pumpkin Cucurbita spp.see 2E
Purslane Portulaca oleracea
Purslane Pink Montia sibirica
Radish Raphanus sativus. Rabanete (Portuguese); Muli (Dari)
Rakkyo Allium chinense (Syn. A. bakeri). Chiao tou (China)
Rape Brassica napus
Red Russian Kale Brassica napus. Canadian Broccoli
Rhubarb Rheum rhabarbarum. Ruibarbo (Portuguese); Pakhai (Pashtu)
Rocambole Allium sativum and A. scorodoprasum
Rocket Eruca sativa (Syn. E. vesicaria). Arugula, Roquette, Rucola; Eruca
(Portuguese)
Roka Eruca sativa. Roquette
Romanesco Brassica oleracea var. italica. Calabrese, Sprouting Broccoli
Roselle Hibiscus sabdariffa. Red Sorrel
Rutabaga Brassica napobrassica (Syn. B. napus var. napobrassica). Swede
Salad Burnet Sanguisorba minor
Salsify Tragopogon porrifolius. Oyster Plant, Vegetable Oyster
Scorzonera Scorzonera hispanica. Black Salsify
Scurvy Grass Cochlearia officinalis
Sea Beet Beta vulgaris var. maritima
Sea Kale Crambe maritima. Chou Marin (French)
Seakale Beet Beta vulgaris var. cicla. Chard, Swiss Chard. Acelga (Portuguese)
Shallotssee 2E, Onion
Shepherds Purse Capsella bursa-pastoris var. auriculata
Siberian Kale Brassica napus
Singhara Nut Trapa bispinosa. Water-chestnut
Skirret Skium sisarumi Zuckerwurzel (German), Sisaro (Italian), Chirivia (Spanish)
Snake Gourd Trichosanthes cucumerina. Serpent Gourd, Chicinda
Sorrel Rumex acetosa. Azda (Portuguese). French Sorrel „ R. scutatus
Spinach Spinacia oleracea. Epinard (French); Espinafre (Portuguese); Palak (Dari)
Spinach Beet Beta vulgaris
Sponge Gourd Luffa spp. Loofah, Luffa, Dishcloth Gourd, Vegetable Sponge



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302TONY WINCH
Spring Onion Allium fistulosum
Sprouting Broccoli Brassica oleracea var. italica. Calabrese, Romanesco
Squash (Winter and Summer). Cucurbita spp.see 2E
Sunberry Solanum intrusum(Syn. S. Nigrumvar. guineense). Garden Huckleberry
Swede Brassica napobrassica (Syn. B. napus var. napobrassica). Rutabaga
Sweet Cicely Myrrhis odorata
Swiss Chard Beta vulgaris var. cicla. Chard, Seakale Beet. Acelga (Portuguese)
Tamarillo Cyphomandra betacea. Tree Tomato
Thousandhead Kale Brassica oleracea
Tomatillo Physalis ixocarpa. Jamberry, Sugar Cherry
Tomato Lycopersicon esculentum (Syn. L. lycopersicum, Solanum lycopersicum)„2E
Tree Onion Allium cepa var. proliferum. Walking Onionsee 2E, Onion
Tree Tomato Cyphomandra betacea. Tamarillo
Trick Madame Sedum reflexum. Stonecrop Houseleek, Trip Madame
(Turks) Turban squash Cucurbita maxima var. turbaniformis
Turnip Brassica rapa (B. campestris var. rapifera). Nabo (Portuguese); Tipar
(Pashtu)
Vegetable Sponge Luffa spp. Loofah, Luffa, Dishcloth Gourd, Sponge Gourd
Walking Onion Allium cepa var. proliferum. Tree Onionsee 2E, Onion
Wasabi Wasabia japonica (Syn. Eutrema japonica)
Water-chestnuts Trapa bicornis (Ling), T. bispinosa (Singhara Nut) and T. natans
(Water Caltrops, Jesuits Nut)
Watercress Nasturtium officinale (Syn. Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum). Agrio
(Portuguese)
Water Spinach Ipomoea aquatica. Kancon, Green Engstai
Wax Gourd Benincasa hispida. Ash Pumpkin, Chinese Preserving Melon,
Chinese Watermelon, Chinese Fuzzy Gourd; Tung Kwa, Mo Kwa, Cham Kwa,
Fa Kwa, Tsit Kwa
Welsh Onion Allium cepa var. aggregatum(Syn. Allium fistulosum). Japanese
Bunching Onion, Ciboule, Scallions (also used for Shallots)
White-flowered Gourd Lagenaria siceraria (Syn. L. vulgaris). Bottle Gourd,
Calabash Gourd
White Mustard Sinapis alba (Syn. Brassica hirta)
Wild Celery Smyrnium olusatrum. Alexanders
Wild Pumpkin Cucurbita foetidissima. Buffalo Gourdsee 2G
Winter Cress Barbarea vulgaris. American Cress, Land Cress, Upland Broad Leaf
Cress, Herbe de Sainte Barbe
Zucchini Cucurbita pepo. Squash, Courgette, Vegetable Marrow; Courgette
(French)
F. FRUITS AND NUTS
African Breadfruit Treculia africana
African Locust Bean Parkia filicoidea



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK303
Akee Blighia sapida. Achee, Ackee (Apple), Akee Tree, Vegetable Brains
Alligator Pear Persea americana. Avocadosee 2F
Almond Prunus dulcis. Badam (Dari)
Alpine Strawberry Fragaria vesca. Sow-teat SB, Wild SB, Woodland SB
Angled Loofah Luffa acutangula
Apple Malus pumila (Syn. Pyrus malu). Pomme (French); Ma/Macieira
(Portuguese); Saib (Dari)
Apple Serviceberry AmelanchierX grandiflora
Apricot Prunus armeniaca (Syn. Armeniaca vulgaris). Zard Ahlu, Mandata (Pashtu
& Dari)
Argus Pheasant Tree Dracontomelon mangiferum
Atemoya Annona cherimola X  A. squamosa (Cherimoya X Sugar Apple/Sweet
Sop)
Australian (Moreton Bay) Chestnut Castanospermum australe
Australian Desert Lime Eremocitrus glauca
Australian Wild Limes Microcitrus
Autumn Olive Elaeagnus umbellata Japanese Silverberry, Oleaster, Elaeagnus
Avocado (Pear) Persea americanasee 2F
Banana Musa spp.see 2F
Banana Passion Fruit Passiflora mollissima (Syn. Tacsonia mollissima)pink
flowers, and Passifloraantioquiensis (Syn. P. van-volxemii)red flowers
Barbados Cherry Malpighia glabra (Syn. M. punicifolia)
Beet Berry Chenopodium capitatum. Strawberry Spinach
Bilimbi Averrhoa bilimbi. Cucumber Tree, Tree-sorrel
Blackberry Rubus ulmifolius
Blackcurrant Ribes nigrum
Black Haw Crateagus douglasii
Black Persimmon (Black Sapote) Diospyros digyna (Syn. D.ebenaster) Chocolate
Pudding Fruit. Barbicoa (French); Ebenholzbaum (German); Zapote Negro(Spanish)
Borassus Palm Borassus flabellifer. Palmyra
Box Blueberry Vaccinium ovatum. Evergreen Huckleberry.
Boysenberry „ Loganberry X Blackberry X red Raspberry hybrid
Brazil Nut Bertholletia excelsa. Pavory or Pava Nut; Neuz de Para (Spanish);
Castanha-do-Par (Portuguese)
Brazilian Guava Psidium guineense (Syn.P.mole). Wild Guava, Araca, Guayabillo,
Guisaro, Guayaba Agria / Llanera / Coyote
Bread Fruit Artocarpus altilis (Syn. A. communis, A .incisa). Bread Nut; Arbe 
pain, Fruit  pain (French); Fruta-de-pan (Spanish); Fruta-po (Brazil); Uto (Fijian)
Bullocks Heart Annona reticulata. Custard Apple, Ramphal, Sweet Sop; Anone,
Coeur de Boeuf (French); Anona (colorado), Corazon (Spanish); Corao de Boi
(Brazil); Araticumape (Portugal)
Butternut Juglans cinerea. White Walnut, Demon Walnut, Oilnut



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304TONY WINCH
Cainito Star Apple Chrysophyllum cainito. Star Apple; Caimito, Cainito/i, Abi-
do-Par, Ma-Estrelada (Portuguese)
Calamondin Citrofortunella microcarpa (Citrus reticulata X Fortunella spp.)
Cape Gooseberry Physalis peruviana (P. pruinosa) Goldenberry, Husk or Ground
Cherry
Caper Capparis spinosa Caper, Cappero, Alcaperro, Caper Berry, Caper Bud,
Caperbush, Caper Fruit, Kpari, Smooth Caper, Spiny Caper, Tapra
Carambola Averrhoa carambola. Star Fruit, Coromandel Gooseberry, Averrhoa;
Carambole (French)
Carob Ceratonia siliqua. St Johns Bread, Locust Bean. Caroube, Caroubier
(French); Johannisbrotbraum (German); Alfarrobeira (Portuguese); Algarrobo,
Caroba (Spanish)
Cs Psidium friedrichsthalianum Costa Rican Guava
Cascade Oregon Grape Mahonia nervosa Cascade Barberry, Cascade (Dull)
Oregon Grape
Cashew Anacardium occidentale. Acaj, Cashew Nut; Cachou (French); Merci
(Spanish, in Venezuela); {Castanha de} Caju (Portuguese)
Cattley Psidium littorale (P. cattleianum). Chiku, Sapodilla, Strawberry Guava
Ceriman Monstera deliciosa (Syn M. lennea, Pholodendron pertusum) Swiss-cheese
plant, Windowleaf, Mexican Breadfruit, Split-leaf Philodendron
Champedak Artocarpus integer (Syn. A. champeden). Lemasa
Checkerberry Gaultheria procumbens. (Creeping) Wintergreen, Mountain-tea
Teaberry. Gaultherie, Petit Th des Bois (French); Wintergrn (German)
Cherimoya Annona cherimolia. Anone, Cherimolier (French); Cherimolia, Anona
do Chile, Querimlia (Portuguese)
Cherry Prunus spp., including P. avium (Sweet Cherry) and P. cerasus (Sour
Cherry)
Cherry Plum Prunus cerasifera. Myrobalan Plum
Cherry Prinsepia Prinsepia sinensis. Dong bei rui he (Chinese)
Chiku Manilkara achras (Syn. M. zapotilla, Achras zapota) Sapodilla, Sapota,
Naseberry; Sapotille (French); Sapoti (Portuguese); Nispero (Spanish, in Columbia);
Chika (Malaya)
Chinese Gooseberry Actinidia deliciosa (Syn. A. chinensis). Kiwi Fruit
Chinese Jujube Zizyphus jujuba. Chinese Date
Chinese Mulberry Cudrania tricus pidata Che, Cudrang, Silkworm Tree
Chinese Watermelon Benincasa hispida. Wax Gourd, Ash Pumpkin, Chinese
Preserving Melon, Chinese Fuzzy Gourd; Tung Kwa, Mo Kwa, Cham Kwa
Citrange Citrus sinensis X Poncirus trifoliata
Citron Citrus medica. Cdrat (French); Cidra (Portuguese)
Citrus Fruitssee 2F:
Citrus limonlemon (citron, in French)
Citrus aurantifolialime (limette, or citron vert, in French)
Citrus sinensissweet orange
Citrus aurantiumsour (Seville) orange



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 GROWING FOOD  THE FOOD PRODUCTION HANDBOOK305
Citrus paradisigrapefruit
Citrus reticulata*  „ tangerine, mandarin, satsuma (& Rangpur lime) [* Also
classified as C. nobilis]
Citrus maxima**pomelo (shaddock) [** Syn C. grandis, C. decumana, C.
paradisi, C. aurantium)]
Citrus medicacitron (cedrat, in French)
Poncirus trifoliatatrifoliate orange
- Citrus Hybrids: C. reticulata X C. paradisi = tangelo, C. reticulata X C. sinensis=
 tangor, C. sinensis X P. trifoliata = citrange
Clementine cv. of tangerine Citrus reticulata, or C. reticulata X C. sinensis
Cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus
Coast Gooseberry Ribes divaricatum
Coconut Cocos nucifera
Cornelian Cherry Cornus mas Sorbet. Cornouiller Mle (French);
Kornelkirsche (German); Cornejo Comn, Cornejo Macho (Spanish)
Creeping Barberry Mahonia repens. Creeping Oregon Grape
Cuachilote Parmentiera aculeata (Syn. P. edulis Cuajilote (Spanish, Guatemala)
Custard Appleat least 3 species are called Custard Apple: 1. Papaw (Pawpaw)
Asimina triloba, 2. Bullocks Heart (Ramphal, Sweet Sop) Annona reticulata, and 3.
Sugar Apple (Sweet Sop, Anona) Annona squamosa
Damson Prunus damascena
Date Palm Phoenix dactylifera Date. Dattier, Palmier Dattier (French); Dattelpalme
(German); Tamareira (Portuguese); Palmera Datilera (Spanish)
Dewberry Rubus caesius. European Dewberry. Ronce Bleutre (French); Acker-
Brombeere, Kratzbeere (German); Ou zhou mu mei (Chinese)
Duku Lansium domesticum. Langsat; Lansium (French); Arbol de Lanze
(Portuguese); Lansone, Ayer (Malaya)
Durian Durio zibethinus. Durione (French); Durianbaum, Stinkfrucht(German)
Egg Fruit Lucuma bifera, L. nervosa, and L. salicifolia
Elderberry Sambucus canadensis
Ensete Ensete spp.see 2F, Banana
Feijoa Feijoa sellowiana. see Pineapple Guava
Fig Ficus carica. Inzar (Pashtu)
Gooseberry Ribes grossularia (Syn. R. uva-crispa)
Granadilla Passiflora quadrangularis. Barbadine (French); Maracuj melo
(Brazil)
Grapes Vitis vinifera. Angoor (Pashtu)
Grapefruit Citrus paradisi. Toranja {fruit}, {Toranjeira-tree} (Portuguese)
Greengage Prunus italica
Green Sapote Calocarpum viride
Ground Cherry Physalis pruinosa. Husk Tomato, Strawberry Tomato, Dwarf Cape
Gooseberry
Guama Inga laurinasee Sacky sack
Guaran Paullinia cupana
Guava Psidium guajavasee 2F



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306TONY WINCH
Guisaro Psidium guineense (Syn. P. molle) Brazilian/Wild Guava
Heartnut Juglans sieboldiana cordiformis
Highbush Blueberry Vaccinium corymbosum
Hog Plum Spondias mombin
Hoogly Citrus reticulata X C. paradisi. Ugli
Huckleberry Solanum burbankii
Husk Cherry Physalis pruinosa Ground Cherry, Cape Gooseberry
Ilama Annona diversifolia
Indian Wood Apple Feronia limonia
Jaboticaba Myrciaria cauliflora (Syn. Eugenia cauliflora)
Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus (Syn. A. integra, A. integrifolia). Jakfruit;
Jack (French); Jaca (Spanish & Portuguese); Buah Nangka (Malaya); Langka
Jambolan Eugenia cuminii
Java (Rose) Apple Eugenia javanica (Syn. Syzygium javanica). Jambosa, Wax
Jambo, Macopa, Java Apple, Semarang, Jambu Ayer Rhio
Indian Jujube Zizyphus mauritania
Italian Pine Pinus pinea
Japanese Medlar Eriobotrya japonica. Loquat
Japanese Persimmon Diospyros khaki. Persimmmon, Oriental Persimmon, Date
Plum, Sharon Fruit
Japanese Raisin Tree Hovenia dulcis
Japanese Wineberry Rubus phoenicolasius
Juneberry Amelanchier canadensis
Kapok Ceiba pentandra Silk-cottontree. Capoc, fromager, kapokier (French),
Kapokbaum (German), rbol capoc, Ceiba (Spanish), Pochote
Kiwi Fruit Actinidiaspp. Chinese Gooseberry, Strawberry Peach
Korean Pine Pinus koraiesis
Kumquat Fortunella polyandra, F. margarita, F. japonica and other spp.
Langsat (or Duku) Lansium domesticum. Lansium (French); Arbol de Lanze
(Portuguese); Lansone, Ayer (Malaya)
Lemon Citrus limon. Citron (French); Limo (Portuguese)
Lime Citrus aurantifolia. Limette (French); Limo doce/Limeira (Portuguese)
Litchi Litchi chinensis (Syn. Nephelium litchi). Lychee, Litchee
Loganberry Rubus loganobaccus
Locust Bean Ceratonia siliqua See Carob
Loquat Eriobotrya japonica. Japanese Medlar, Japanese PLum
Lychee Litchi chinensis (Syn. Nephelium litchi). Litchi, Litchee
Mabolo Diospyros discolor. Macassar ebony, Velvet Apple
Macadamia Nut Macadamia ternifolia (Syn. M. integrifolia, M. tetraphylla).
Queensland Nut
Mahua Madhuca longifolia (Syn. M. indica). Moatree, Mowra-buttertree
Malay Rose Apple Eugenia malaccensis (Syn. Syzygium malaccensis). Pomme de
Tahiti, Jambossier Rouge, Jamalae (French); Pomoreja de Malaca, Jambe de
Malacea (Spanish); Ohia (Hawaiian); Jambu Merah (Malaya)



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Mammey Apple Mammea americana. Tropical Apricot. Abricotier (French)
Mammey Sapote Calocarpum sapota (Syn. C. mammosum)
Mandarin Citrus reticulata (Syn. C. nobilis). Satsuma, Tangerine; Mexerica
(Portuguese)
Mango Mangifera indicasee 2F
Mangosteen Garcinia mangostana. Mangoustan (French); Mangostan (Spanish);
Mangosto (Portuguese)
Medlar Mespilus germanica (Syn. Mimusops elengi, Vangueria infausta)
Melon Cucumis melo. Melo (Portuguese)
Mountain Papaya Carica candamarcensis (Syn. C.pubescens, Vasconcellea
cundinamarcensis,V. cundamarcensis, V. pubescens). Papayer de Montagne
(French); Bergpapaya (German); Chambur, Chamburo , Chiluacn, Papaya de
Tierra Fra (Spanish)
Mountain Soursop Annona montana
Mulberry Morus alba (White Mulberry), Morus nigra (Black Mulberry).
Amora/Amoreira (Portuguese); Tut (Pashtu, Persian/Dari)
Naranjilla/o Solanum quitoense
Natal Plum Carissa grandiflora (Syn. C. macrocarpa). Amatungulu.
Carisse (French); Amatngula, Cereza de Natal (Spanish)
Nectarine Prunus persica var. nectarina. Nectarina (Portuguese)
Orange Citrus sinensis (Sweet Orange), C. aurantium (Sour Orange), C. trifoliata
(Trifoliate Orange)see 2F, Citrus
Oregon Hollygrape Mahonia aquifolium. Holly Barberry, Tall Oregon Grape
Osoberry Osmaronia cerasiformis. Indian Peach
Oval Kumquat Fortunella margarita
Oval-leafed Blueberry Vaccinium ovalifolium
Pacific Dewberry Rubus ursinus. California Blackberry, California Dewberry,
Pacific Blackberry
Pacific Madrone Arbutus menziesii. Madroa, Madroo (Spanish)
Palmyra Palm Borassus flabellifer. Borassus Palm
Papaya Carica papaya. Pawpaw, Papawsee 2F
Passion Fruit Passiflora edulis, P. quadrangularis and other Passiflora spp.
(Purple) Granadilla, Simitoo, Sweet Cup; Pomme Liane (French); Maracuj
(Portuguese)
Pawpaw (Papaw) Asimina triloba. Custard Apple
Peach Prunus persica(Syn. P. vulgaris). Shaftahlu (Pashtu & Dari); Pssego/
Pessegueiro (Portuguese)
Pear Pyrus communis. Nak (Pashtu and Dari); Pra/Pereira (Portuguese)
Pepino Solanum muricatum
Pineapple Ananus comosus. Ananas (French); Abacaxi (Brazil); Anans
 (Portuguese); Pina (Spanish)
Pineapple Guava Feijoa sellowiana (Syn Acca sellowiana). Feijoa, Guavasteen;
Goiaba do Campo, Goiaberra Serrana (Portuguese), Guayaba Chilena (Spanish).
Pitahaya Celenicereus sp.



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308TONY WINCH
Pitanga Cherry Eugenia uniflora
Plantainssee 2F, Bananas
Plum(European) Prunus domestica. Ameixa (Portuguese); Olocha (Dari)
Pomegranate Punica granatum. Rom (zeiro) (Portuguese); Anar (Pashtu)
Pomelo Citrus maxima**Pomelo (shaddock), Pummelo, [** Syn C. grandis,
C. decumana, C. paradisi, C. aurantium]
Prickly Pear Opuntia ficus-indicaBarbary Fig, Indian Fig , Mission Cactus, Tuna
cactus. Figuier dInde/ de Barbarie (French); Feigenkaktus (German); Figo-da-
ndia/Espanha/Barbria, Palma de Gado (Portuguese); Chumba, Higuera, Nopal
Peln, Tuna (Spanish)
Pulasan Nephelium mutabile (Close relation of the Rambutan)
Pummelo„   see Pomelo
Quince Cydonia vulgaris
Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum. Hairy Lychee; Ramboutan, Litchi Chevula
(French); Ramustan (Spanish)
Raspberry Rubus idaeus. Framboesa/Framboeseira (Portuguese)
Redcurrant Ribes sativum, R. petraeum and R. rubrum
Red Huckleberry Vaccinium parvifolium
Rhubarb Rheum rhaponticum. Ruibarbo (Portuguese)
Rose Apple Eugenia jambes (Syn. Syzygium jambes). Pomarosa (Spanish); Jambu
Mawar (Malayan)
Round Kumquat Fortunella japonica
Russet buffalo-berry Shepherdia canadensis
Sacky sack Inga laurina Guama, Jackysac, Spanish Oak, Sweet Pea.
Pois Doux (Blanc) (French); Cujinicuil, Paternillo, Palal, Jina, Guavo, Guamo
Rosario, Guabo, Guamo, Guam (Spanish)
Salmon Berry Rubus spectabilis (Thimbleberry Rubus parviflorus is also
sometimes called Salmon Berry)
Sapodilla Manilkara zapotilla (Syn. M. achras, Achras zapota). Sapota, Naseberry,
Chiku; Sapotille (French); Sapoti (Portuguese); Nispero (Spanish, in Columbia);
Chika (Malaya); Breiapfelbaum, Kaugummibaum, Sapodillbaum (German)
Sapote Calocarpum mamosum. {Taxonomy very confused with Sapodilla}
Sapucaia Nut Lecythisspp.
Saskatoon Berry Amelanchier alnifolia June Berry, Pacific Service Berry, Service
Berry, Western Service Berry, Western Shadbush
Shaddock Citrus maxima**Pomelo, Pummelo, [** Syn C. grandis, C. decumana,
C. paradisi, C. aurantium]
Shallon Gaultheria shallon. Salal
Siberian Pea Tree Caragana arborescens
Siberian Kiwi Actindia arguta Hardy Kiwi
Smooth Loofah Luffa cylindrica
Soncoya Annona purpurea Atier, Tte de Ngre (French); Anona Rosada, Catagire,
Manirote, Soncoya, Turagua, Toreta (Spanish)
Sorbet Cornus mas. See Cornelian Cherry



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Soursop Annona muricata (A. montana. Mountain Soursop) Guanabana, Sappadille
(French); Graviola, Jaca do Par (Brazil); Guanbana (Spanish); Anona, Araticum
(Portuguese); Durian Belanda (Malaya)
Stagbush Viburnum prunifolium. Black Haw (also common name for Crataegus
douglasii)
Star Apple Chrysophyllum cainito. Cainito Starapple, Golden Leaf Tree, Eslo,
Nessarrjo, Tuko; Caimito, Cainito/i, Abi-do-Par, Ma-Estrelada (Portuguese),
Cauje, Maduraverde, Ablaca, Pipa, Sapotillo; Abiaba, Caimite, Canite (French)
Star Fruit Averrhoa carambola. Carambola. Sternfrucht (German)
Strawberry Fragaria spp. Morango (Portuguese)
Strawberry Guava Psidium littorale (P. cattleianum). Cattley
Sugar Apple Annona squamosa. Anona, Custard Apple, Sweetsop; Ann (Spanish);
Ateira (tree), Ata (fruit), Fruta-do-Conde, Condssa, Pinha (Portuguese)
Surinam Cherry Eugenia uniflora (E. michelli). Brazilian or Cayenne Cherry;
Cerise de Cayenne (French); Ceraza de Cayena (Spanish); Pitanga (Portuguese)
Sweet Granadilla Passiflora ligularis. Granadina China. Cranix (Spanish)
Sweetsop Annona squamosa. Anona, Custard Apple, Sugar Apple; Ann (Spanish);
Ateira (tree), Ata (fruit), Fruta-do-Conde, Condssa, Pinha (Portuguese)
Tamarind Tamarindus indica. Tamarindo (Portuguese); Asam Jawa (Malaya)
Tangelo Citrus reticulata X Citrus paradisi
Tangerine Citrus reticulata (Syn. C. nobilis). Mandarin, Satsuma; Mexerica (Port.)
Tangor C. nobilis (C. reticulata X C. sinensis). King Orange/of Siam. Kunembo
Thimbleberry Rubus parviflorus Salmon Berry. Nutka Himbeere (German)
Thin Leaved Blueberry Vaccinium membranaceum. Black Huckleberry
Tomato Litchi Solanum sisymbriifolium. Dense Thorn Bitter Apple, Wild Tomato.
Doringtamatie, Wildetamatie (Afrikaans)
Trifoliate Orange Poncirus trifoliata
Ugli Citrus reticulata X C. paradisi. Hoo-Glee, Uniq Fruit, Unique Fruit.
Walnut Juglans spp. Black Walnut (J. nigra), English/Persian Walnut (J. regia).
Charmarghz (Dari)
Water Lemon Passiflora lauriflora. Jamaica Honeysuckle, Sweet Cup, Bell Apple,
Yellow Granadilla. Pomme de Liane/d or (French); Parcha (Spanish),
Watermelon Citrullus lanatus (Syn. C. vulgaris, Colocynthis citrullus)see 2F
Watery Rose Apple Syzygium aqueum (Syn. Eugenia aquea). Bellfruit, Water
Apple, Watery Rose Apple. Jambo Ayer (French); Wasserjambuse (German); Perita
Costea, Tambis (Spanish); Jambu Air (Malaya)
White-bark Raspberry Rubus leucodermis. Blackcap
Whitecurrantsame species as Redcurrant but without red pigment (anthocyanin)
White Sapote Casimiroa edulis. Casimiroa, Mexican Apple. Matasano (Spanish)
Wineberry Rubus phoenicolasius (Syn. Aristotelia serrata, Rubus phoenicolasius)
Wine Raspberry, Japanese Wineberry. Duo Xian Xuan Gou Zi (Chinese);
Jananische Weinbeere, Rotborstige Himbeere (German)
Yamaboshi Cornus kousa var. chinensis. Japanese Dogwood, Kousa Dogwood.
Cornouiller Kousa (French); Japanischer Blumen (German)